The Bogd Khanate of Mongolia was a Mongolian state that existed from 1911 to 1919 and was restored from 1921 to 1924. "Bogd Khanate" is a conventional name used in modern historiography; contemporary Mongolian documents frequently referred to the polity as the Great Mongol State (Их Монгол Улс; Classical Mongolian: Yeke Mongγol Ulus), and used related forms for its government and ruler.
During the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongol princes and lamas in Khüree formed a provisional government and moved toward independence. On 1 December 1911, the provisional government issued a proclamation announcing Mongolia's independence and stating that Mongolia had originally been an independent polity. On 29 December, the eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu was enthroned as Bogd Khaan, combining religious and political authority, and a new central government was inaugurated. His reign title was Olon-a Örgügdegsen (Олноо өргөгдсөн, "Elevated by All").
The government sought to consolidate its authority in Khalkha and western Mongolia while also pursuing the political unification of Mongols in other former Qing territories, including Mongol banners in present-day Inner Mongolia, Barga and Hulunbuir, Alasha, Köke Nuur and other regions. Contemporary documents associated this movement with the Great Mongol State and, in some cases, with succession to the earlier state founded by Chinggis Khaan. Responses among Mongol princes and banners varied, and the attempt at wider political unification ultimately failed.
The Russian Empire supported Mongolian autonomy but did not support the full independence and territorial programme pursued by the Mongolian government. Under the Kyakhta Agreement of 1915, Mongolia accepted autonomous status under Chinese suzerainty while retaining its own government. Mongolian autonomy was abolished by Chinese authorities in 1919. In 1921, Bogd Khaan's monarchy was restored during the Mongolian Revolution of 1921, and it continued alongside the new revolutionary government until his death in 1924. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed later that year.
Name
"Bogd Khanate of Mongolia" is a conventional name used in modern historiography for the state ruled by Bogd Khaan. Contemporary Mongolian documents used several forms for the polity and its government. One frequently attested name was Great Mongol State (Их Монгол Улс; Classical Mongolian: Yeke Mongγol Ulus), the same name historically used for the state founded by Chinggis Khaan.
Contemporary documents refer to the newly established polity as Ikh Mongol Uls, its government as the Government of the Great Mongol State, and its ruler as the Bogd Khaan of the Great Mongol State. Related expressions such as Ikh Mongol ulsyn tör, Ikh Mongolyn tör and Ikh tör were also used for the government or political order. Chinese-language sources rendered the name as 大蒙古國 (Dà Měnggǔguó, "Great Mongol State").
Olon-a Örgügdegsen (Олноо өргөгдсөн, "Elevated by All") was the reign or era title adopted upon Bogd Khaan's enthronement on 29 December 1911, rather than simply the name of the state.
The term "Bogd Khanate" therefore describes the period of Bogd Khaan's rule, while contemporary sources commonly referred to the polity itself as Mongolia or the Great Mongol State.
Mongolian Revolution of 1911
On 2 February 1913. the Bogd Khanate sent Mongolian cavalry forces to liberate Inner Mongolia from China. The Russian Empire refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and Russian Tsar Nicholas II spoke of "Mongolian imperialism". The only country to recognize Mongolia as a legitimate state was Tibet, which also declared its independence from Qing China. Tibet and Mongolia later signed a friendship treaty and affirmed mutual recognition.
Government and society
At the time, the government was still composed of a feudal Khanate, which held its system in place largely with the power of agriculture, as most traditional pastoral societies of East Asia had been. The new Mongolian state was a fusion of very different elements: Western political institutions, Mongolian theocracy, and Qing imperial administrative and political traditions. 29 December was declared to be independence day and a national holiday. Urga (modern Ulaanbaatar), until then known to the Mongolians as the "Great Monastery" (Ikh khüree), was renamed "Capital Monastery" (Niislel khüree) to reflect its new role as the seat of government. A state name, "Great Mongolian State" (Ikh Mongol uls), and a state flag were adopted. A parliament (ulsyn khural) was created, comprising upper and lower houses. A new Mongolian government was formed with five ministries: internal affairs, foreign affairs, finance, justice, and the army. Consequently, a national army was created.
The new state also reflected old ways; the Bogd Khaan adopted a reign title, "Elevated by the Many" (Olnoo örgogdsön), a style name used (it was believed) by the ancient kings of Tibet. He promoted the ruling princes and lamas by one grade, an act traditionally performed by newly installed Chinese emperors. Lay and religious princes were instructed to render their annual tribute, the "nine whites". By tradition the "nine whites" were eight white horses and one white camel. On this occasion, the "nine whites" consisted of 3,500 horses and 200 camels sent to the Bogd Khaan instead of the Qing Emperor as in the past. Again, the Bogd Khaan appropriated to himself the right to confer ranks and seals of office upon the Mongolian nobility.
The Bogd Khaan himself was the inevitable choice as leader of the state in view of his stature as the revered symbol of Buddhism in Mongolia. He was famed throughout the country for his special oracular and supernatural powers and as the Great Khan of Mongols. He established contacts with foreign powers, tried to assist development of economy (mainly agriculture and military issues), but his main goal was development of Buddhism in Mongolia.
The new state was theocratic, and its system suited Mongols, but it was not economically efficient as the leaders were inexperienced in such matters. The Qing dynasty had been careful to check the encroachment of religion into the secular arena; that restraint was now gone. State policy was directed by religious leaders, with relatively little participation by lay nobles. The parliament had only consultative powers; in any event, it did not meet until 1914. The Office of Religion and State, an extra-governmental body headed by a lama, played a role in directing political matters. The Ministry of Internal Affairs was vigilant in ensuring that senior ecclesiastics were treated with solemn deference by lay persons.
The head of the Bogd Khaan's Ecclesiastical Administration (Shav' yamen) endeavoured to transfer as many wealthy herdsmen as he could to the ecclesiastical estate (Ikh shav'), resulting in the population bearing an increasingly heavy tax burden. Ten-thousand Buddha statuettes were purchased in 1912 as propitiatory offerings to restore the Bogd Khaan's eyesight. A cast-iron statue of the Buddha, 84 feet tall, was brought from Dolonnor, and a temple was constructed to house the statue. D. Tsedev, pp. 49–50. In 1914 the Ecclesiastical Administration ordered the government to defray the costs of a particular religious ceremony in the amount of 778,000 bricks of tea (the currency of the day), a gigantic sum.
Administrative divisions
Bogd Khanate was divided into four aimags and two khyadzgaars (хязгаар):
- Zasagt Khan aimag (Засагт хан аймаг)
- Tüsheet Khan aimag (Түшээт хан аймаг)
- Setsen Khan aimag (Сэцэн хан аймаг)
- Sain Noyon Khan aimag (Сайн ноён хан аймаг)
- Khovd khyazgaar (Ховдын хязгаар)
- Dörvöd Dalai Khan aimag (Дөрвөд Далай хан аймаг)
- Ünen Zorigt Khan aimag (Үнэн Зоригт Хан аймаг)
- Tagna Uryankhay khyadzgaar (Тагнын Урианхайн хязгаар) independent country, annexed by Russia in 1914.
Diplomatic maneuvering over Mongolia
The new government under Bogd Khan tried to seek international recognition, particularly from the Russian government. The Tsar however, rejected the Mongolian plea for recognition, due to a common Russian Imperial ambition at the time to take over the central Asian states, and Mongolia was planned for further expansion. Throughout the Bogd Khaan era, the positions of the governments of China and Russia were clear and consistent. China was adamant that Mongolia was, and must remain, an integral part of China. The (provisional) constitution of the new Chinese republic contained an uncompromising statement to this effect. A law dealing with the election of the Chinese National Assembly provided for delegates from Outer Mongolia. For their part, the Russian Imperial government accepted the principle that Mongolia must remain formally part of China; however, Russia was equally determined that Mongolia possess autonomous powers so substantial as to make it quasi-independent, so they recognised the autonomy of the region. The Russian Empire could not act on the ambition due to internal struggles, which allowed Russia to claim that Mongolia was under her protection. Thus, in 1912 Russia concluded a secret convention with the Empire of Japan delineating their respective spheres of influence: South Manchuria and Inner Mongolia fell to the Japanese, North Manchuria and Outer Mongolia to the Russians. Bogd Khaan said to Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China "I established our own state before you, Mongols and Chinese have different origins, our languages and scripts are different. You're not the Manchu's descendants, so how can you think China is the Manchu's successor?".
In spite of Chinese and Russian opposition, the Mongols were tireless in their efforts to attract international recognition of their independence. Diplomatic notes were sent to foreign consulates in Hailar; none responded. A delegation went to Saint Petersburg the purpose of which, among other things, was to contact European ambassadors expressing the desire for diplomatic relations. The Russians did not permit these contacts. A later delegation to Saint Petersburg sent notes to Western ambassadors announcing Mongolia's independence and formation of a pan-Mongolian state; again none responded. The Mongols attempted to send a delegation to Japan but the Japanese consul at Harbin prevented it from proceeding further.
While these efforts at obtaining international recognition continued, the Mongols and Russians were negotiating. At the end of 1912, Russia and the Mongols signed a treaty by which Russia acknowledged Mongol autonomy within the Republic of China; it also provided for Russian assistance in the training of a new Mongolian army and for Russian commercial privileges in Mongolia. Nevertheless, in the equivalent Mongolian version of the treaty, the terms designated independence were used. Both versions have the same value; so it was formally recognition of Mongolia as an independent state and its name Great Mongolian State. In 1913 Russia agreed to provide Mongolia with weapons and a loan of two million rubles. In 1913, Mongolia and Tibet signed a bilateral treaty, recognizing each other as independent states.
In November 1913, there was a Sino-Russian Declaration which recognised Mongolia as part of China but with internal autonomy; further, China agreed not to send troops or officials to Mongolia, or to permit colonization of the country; it was also to accept the "good offices" of Russia in Chinese-Mongolian affairs. There was to be a tripartite conference, in which Russia, China, and the "authorities" of Mongolia would participate. This declaration was not considered by Mongolia to be legitimate as the Mongolian government had not participated in the decision.
To reduce tensions, the Russians agreed to provide Mongolia with more weapons and a second loan, this time three million rubles. There were other agreements between Russia and Mongolia in these early years concerning weapons, military instructors, telegraph, and railroad that were either concluded or nearly so by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
In April 1914, the northern region of Tannu Uriankhai was formally accepted as a Russian protectorate.
Kyakhta Agreement of 1915
A tripartite conference between the Russian Empire, Republic of China and the Bogd Khaan's government convened at Kyakhta in the autumn of 1914. The Mongolian representative, Prime Minister Tögs-Ochiryn Namnansüren, were determined to stretch autonomy into independence, and to deny the Chinese anything more than vague, ineffectual suzerain powers. The Chinese sought to minimize, if not to end, Mongolian autonomy. The Russian position was somewhere in between. The result was the Kyakhta Treaty of June 1915, which recognised Mongolia's autonomy within the Chinese state. Nevertheless, Outer Mongolia remained effectively outside Chinese control and retained main features of the state according to international law of that time.
The Mongolians viewed the treaty as a disaster because it denied the recognition of a truly independent, all-Mongolian state. China regarded the treaty in a similar fashion, consenting only because it was preoccupied with other international problems, especially Japan. The treaty did contain one significant feature which the Chinese were later to turn to their advantage; the right to appoint a high commissioner to Urga and deputy high commissioners to Uliastai, Khovd, and Kyakhta. This provided a senior political presence in Mongolia, which had been lacking.