At the conclusion of the Albanian-Ottoman Wars in the 15th century, the Albanian people revolted against the Ottoman Empire. These actions during this time continued an extended period of conquest and border expansion into Southeastern Europe. The Ottomans were left in control of all the main Albanian cities, besides Durrës and Ulcinj, which were still controlled by the Venice. Albania would be ruled by the Ottomans for over 400 years, but this rule would be frequently disrupted by revolts and uprisings with varying degrees of success.
Background
The Ottoman conquest after the Albanian–Ottoman Wars decimated Albania's ability to mount a military threat to Ottoman rule overall. The local Albanian nobility either fled the country or adapted to the new conditions of Ottoman rule. A significant part of the population had also fled to Italy and Greece. Economically, the country had been desolated by the Ottoman campaigns of the second half of the 15th century. In these circumstances, a centralized defensive effort similar to the one led by Skanderbeg was not possible, however, localized pockets of resistance continued to challenge Ottoman authority in the more remote areas of the hinterland. In some occasions, these were inspired by members of the pre-Ottoman noble families who had settled in Italy or Greece. The leaders of revolts and uprisings from the 16th century until the middle of the 19th century would usually seek to gain support from a foreign power, or coordinate efforts with fellow rebels from other Albanian regions. Armed rebellions were frequent in Albanian territories and they were usually combined with political ascension of local elites in the Ottoman hierarchy as a means to increase the rights of Albanian groups.
Resistance by Albanian nobility
In 1481, Nicholas Dukagjini and Lekë Dukagjini returned to Albania. The Rector of Ragusa wrote to the king Ferdinand I of Naples (Ferrante), informing him on June 2, 1481 that Prince Vlatko had returned to Bosnia, while Nicholas Dukagjini went to Albania to join the armed movements against the Ottomans. Gjon Kastrioti II, who had been fighting the Ottomans in Otranto, sailed to Albania in four Neapolitan ships (galera) with his cousin Konstandin Muzaka. He disembarked south of Durrës, Konstandin sailed further south to Himara, while Nicholas and Lekë Dukagjini headed to Upper Albania, in the highlands of Alessio (Lezhë) and Shkodra, where they led the uprising in the north. Nicholas and Lekë's forces attacked the town of Shkodra and forced Hadım Suleiman Pasha to send further military reinforcements in the region. Konstandin carried military actions in the coastal region of Himarë, meanwhile an Albanian infantry of 7,000 was gathered around Gjon Kastrioti. Gjon severely defeated an Ottoman army of 2,000 to 3,000, captured Himara on August 31, 1481 and later Sopot (Borshi) Castle and took captive Hadım Suleiman Pasha, who was sent to Naples as a trophy of the victory and eventually was set free under a ransom of 20,000 ducats. The military campaign led by Nicholas and Lekë Dukagjini in the northern highlands and by Kastrioti and Muzaka in central and south Albania, were conducted to impede new Ottoman troops to reach Italy and their transient success had an external impact on the liberation of Otranto on September 10, 1481.
In 1501, Nicholas' son, Progon had returned to Albania from Italy, to lead an anti-Ottoman rebellion in North Albania. Eventually he signed an agreement with the Ottomans and was given the title Pasha of Rumelia, as well as the dominion over a part of the Dukagjini properties in the form of timar.
The Bushati family would gain power on Ottoman ranks and become Pashas. Kara mahmud pasha would take control of the Pashalik of scutari. In 1785, he started a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. He loses large parts of its territories held outside of the Sanjak of Scutari. The Ottomans fail to overthrow Kara Mahmud Pasha after a decisive defeat in the Siege of Shkodra. Outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War in 1787 and the Austro-Turkish War in 1788 forces Ottoman Authorities to withdraw from further Operations against Kara Mahmud Pasha. After Imperial pardon Kara Mahmud Pasha joins the Ottomans against the Austrians in the Austro-Turkish War.
Ten years after the start of the First Bushati-Ottoman war. Kara mahmud pasha would revolt against the Ottomans once more. This time in 1795 Kara Mahmud Pasha conquered parts of Southern Albania and much of Kosovo. Kara Mahmud Pasha defeated Ottoman forces in Prizren and annexed the Sanjak by installing his own nephew as governor of the sanjak. Ottomans besieged Shkodra and retreated after being defeated by Kara Mahmud Pasha, then returned but again failed to complete the siege.
Muhammad Ali pasha's rise to power in Egypt came following a long, three-way civil war between the Ottoman Empire, Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans. The conflict ended in victory for the mercenaries led by Ali.
In 1820, Ali Pasha Tepelena, the pasha of the Pashalik of janina, would get ideas of independence from the Ottoman Empire. As a result, the Ottomans would crack down on the Pashalik, besieging the capital Janina for 2 years before successfully killing the pasha and dissolving the Pashalik.
In 1831, The Ottomans demand that Mustafa Bushati, leader of the Pahsalik of Scutari, hand over the districts of Dukakin, Debar, Elbasan, Ohrid and Trgovište. Bushati refuses and, with support from Serbia, invades Ottoman lands in Europe, taking Prizren and Skopje followed by Sofia in mid-March. Ottomans besiege Shkodër in April and the rebels are defeated at Skopje in May. Bushati withdraws from Prizren and Skopje to defend Shkodër. After a 6-month siege, Bushati surrenders Shkodër in November, ending the war. The Pashalik of Scutari is dissolved.
The First Egyptian-Ottoman war (1831–1833) was a military conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt brought about by Muhammad Ali Pasha's demand to the Sublime Porte for control of Greater Syria, as reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. As a result, Egyptian forces temporarily gained control of Syria, advancing as far north as Kütahya. The great powers intervened fearing a strong, independent Egyptian state being formed instead of a weak, crumbling Ottoman state. Muhammad Ali was still allowed to hold onto greater Syria after the war, however tensions would still be around.
In 1839, the Ottoman Empire moved to reoccupy lands lost to Muhammad Ali in the First Turko-Egyptian War. The Ottoman Empire invaded Syria, but after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Nezib appeared on the verge of collapse. On 1 July, the Ottoman fleet sailed to Alexandria and surrendered to Muhammad Ali. Britain, Austria and other European nations, rushed to intervene and force Egypt into accepting a peace treaty. From September to November 1840, a combined naval fleet, made up of British and Austrian vessels, cut off Ibrahim's sea communications with Egypt, followed by the occupation of Beirut and Acre by the British. On 27 November 1840, the Convention of Alexandria took place. British Admiral Charles Napier reached an agreement with the Egyptian government, where the latter abandoned its claims to Syria and returned the Ottoman fleet in exchange of the recognition of Muhammad Ali and his sons as the only legitimate rulers of Egypt.
Ottoman rule in remote areas
After capturing Shkoder in 1479, the Ottomans did not succeed in extending their rule around the Albanian Alps until 1491, when they finally were able to register the population of Kelmendi for tax collection purposes. Not only around the Albanian Alps, but also in other mountainous regions, the Ottomans had to concede local tribes the right to self-governance according to the local traditions, such as the Kanun of Leke Dukagjini. In an effort to pacify these regions, they recognized Albanian tribes as self-governing units led by their own bajraktars, and ruled in very decentralized fashion. Until the Tanzimat Reforms, these tribes only paid tribute once a year, continued to bear weapons, and their children were not taken into the Devshirme system. When it was required, Albanian tribes joined Ottoman military campaigns as compact units and commanded by their own leaders, and returned home after the war. In areas of strategic interest, especially near trade routes or militarily important roads, the Ottomans even gave local tribes the status of debrenci, as protectors of peace and order. Despite the substantial concessions, the highland tribes never fully integrated into the empire, and would frequently launch revolts and uprisings against the Ottomans.
Northern highlands
Among the Albanian tribes of the northern highlands, the Kelmendi obtained debrenci status and became the most powerful, seriously threatening Ottoman rule around the Albanian Alps until the early 18th century. Other tribes, such as Kuçi, Palbardhi, Gruda, Hoti, etc., also participated in regular revolts.
As early as 1538, the Kelmendi rose up against the Ottomans and may have done so also in 1565 as Kuçi and Piperi were also in rebellion.
In 1609, Venetian documents mention the Kelmendi as being in a conflict with the Ottomans for 4 consecutive years. The local Ottomans were unable to counter them and were thus forced to ask the Bosnian Pasha for help.
In 1614, the Convention of Kuçi held in the area of the Kuçi tribe in the region of Malësia in modern northernmost Albania and Montenegro, to create an anti-Ottoman alliance and gain western support.
In 1694, the Hoti and Kuçi tribe rose up against the Ottomans
Throughout the 1630s, Kelmendi was in regular clashes with the Ottomans, which culminated in 1637–38, when the tribe would repel an army of 12,000 (according to some sources 30,000) commanded by Vutsi Pasha of the Bosnia Eyalet. Ottoman casualties vary from 4,000 to 6,000, based on different sources. The legend of Nora of Kelmendi would come to life during this epic struggles.
In 1658, the seven tribes of Kuči, Vasojevići, Bratonožići, Piperi, Kelmendi, Hoti and Gruda allied themselves with the Republic of Venice against the Ottomans, establishing the so-called "Seven-fold barjak" or "alaj-barjak".
In 1688, an uprising in Medun would take place. The Kelmendi, Kuçi and Piperi tribes would revolt against the Bushati rule there. They would win 2 battles and capture the area of Medun and its supplies.
In 1689, the Kelmendi joined other tribes from northern and northeastern Albania, as well as Albanians from Prizren, Pristina and other regions of Kosovo, in support of the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire during its Kosovo campaign.
In 1774, the Pashalik of Scutari invaded Brda. The Kuçi and Palabardhi tribes managed to defend against the attacking Shkodrans. Kara Mahmud Pasha would try again in 1794 but was once again unsuccessful.
In 1832, Hoti, Kastrati, Gruda and Kelmendi joined Montenegrin forces and defeated Ottoman forces on Hoti mountain.
In May 1845, following Reşid Pasha's outloawing of arm bearing, 2000 people from the Gjakova region, and the Highlands of Gjakova tribes of Krasniqi, Gashi, Bytyçi rose in revolt. The rebels, comprising about 8,000 men, drove the Ottoman garrison out of Gjakova. The Ottomans suppressed the rebellion, but did not succeed in establishing effective control of the region.
In 1862 the Ottomans sent Maxharr Pasha with 12 divisions to implement the Tanzimat Reforms in the Highlands of Gjakova. Under the leadership of Mic Sokoli and Binak Alia, the tribes of Krasniqi, Gashi, Bytyçi, Nikaj-Mertur organized the resistance near Bujan. The rebels were reinforced by the forces of Shala, led by Mark Lula. After heavy fighting, they managed to defeat the Ottoman force and expel them from the highlands.