An ongoing insurgency in Pakistan's Balochistan province and Iran's Sistan and Baluchestan province is fought between Baloch nationalist separatist groups, Islamist militants, and the governments of Pakistan and Iran. The conflict is rooted in long-standing grievances over political marginalisation, economic underdevelopment, enforced disappearances, and the control of Balochistan's natural resources. The insurgency has involved guerrilla warfare, bombings, assassinations, and attacks on military personnel, infrastructure, and civilians. Sectarian violence, particularly against the Shia Hazara community in Pakistan, has also contributed to instability in the region. Human rights organisations have accused both militant groups and state security forces of abuses during the conflict.
In Pakistan, Baloch nationalist insurgencies have occurred intermittently since 1948, shortly after the accession of the Khanate of Kalat to Pakistan. Further insurgencies took place in 1958–1960, 1963–1969, and 1973–1977, with the current insurgency beginning in 2003. The conflict intensified after the killing of Baloch nationalist leader Akbar Bugti in 2006, leading to increased militant activity against Pakistani forces. Separatist groups have demanded greater political autonomy or independence for Balochistan, while the Pakistani government has accused foreign states, notably India and Afghanistan, of supporting Baloch rebels.
Militant groups involved
Several militant groups have operated during the insurgency, including the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA), Balochistan Liberation Front (BLF), and Baloch Republican Army (BRA), alongside Islamist and sectarian organisations such as Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and the Islamic State – Khorasan Province. The BLA, the most prominent separatist organisation, has been designated a terrorist organisation by Pakistan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. While the insurgency in Pakistan largely remained low-intensity compared to other regional conflicts, violence has continued through attacks on security forces, laborers, journalists, and ethnic settlers.
In Iran, insurgent activity has mainly been concentrated in Sistan and Baluchestan province, where Sunni Baloch militant groups such as Jundallah and Jaysh al-Adl have carried out attacks against Iranian security forces. Iran has accused Pakistan-based militants of using cross-border sanctuaries, while Pakistan and Iran have periodically cooperated in broader security operations. Despite military campaigns and reconciliation initiatives by both governments, the insurgency remains unresolved and continues to affect regional security and development.
Pakistan-allied Afghan groups
As of 2026, nearly 2,000 former Afghan police officers and soldiers were recruited by Pakistan in Balochistan. They were reportedly introduced to local police stations in their assigned areas to fight insurgency. According to Radio Free Liberty, the Pakistan government even mulled the idea to raise civilian led "lashkars." They were hired for a salary of roughly 40,000 Pakistani rupees a month ($145). Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (JUI) has been critical of the idea. Fazal-ur-Rehman opposed it while Fazal Qadir Mandokhail confirmed presence of thousands at the Balochistan provincial assembly in August 2026. Abdul Qahar Wadan, provincial president of the Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party (PkMAP) also confirmed presence of thousands of "arbakiyan" or militants.
Area of dispute
Historical Balochistan covers the southern part of the Iranian Sistan and Baluchestan province in the west, the Pakistani province of Balochistan in the east, and part of Afghanistan's Helmand Province in the northwest, while the Gulf of Oman forms its southern border. Mountains and desert make up much of the region's terrain. A majority of Baloch inhabit the region of Balochistan that falls within Pakistan's borders.
Geographically, Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan (comprising 44% of the country's total area), but it is the least developed and least inhabited, comprising only 5% of the total population. Sunni Islam is the predominant religion throughout the Balochistan region.
Stuart Notholt, in his Atlas of Ethnic Conflict, describes the unrest in Balochistan as a "nationalist/self-determination conflict".
History
Background
The origins of the secessionist movement are believed to have started around the uncertainty regarding the Khanate of Kalat, established in 1666 by Mir Ahmad. The Khanate of Kalat occupied territory around the center of present-day Balochistan province. Under Nasir I of Kalat in 1758, who accepted the Afghan paramountcy, the boundaries of Kalat stretched up to Dera Ghazi Khan in the east and Bandar Abbas in the west.
Invasion of Kalat
During the British invasion of Kalat in November 1839, the Khan was killed in action. Afterwards, British influence in the region gradually grew. Under British rule Kalat was one of the four princely states (Makran, Las Bela, Kharan, and Kalat) within the province of modern-day Balochistan. In 1869, the British political agent Robert Groves Sandeman mediated a dispute between the Khan of Kalat and the Sardars of Balochistan, and established British primacy in the region. The tribal areas of Marri, Bugti, Khetran, and Chaghi were brought under the direct administration of a British Agent, eventually becoming the Chief Commissioner's Province of Balochistan. Las Bela and Kharan were declared Special Areas with a different political system. The remaining areas of Sarawan, Jhalawan, Kacchi, and Makran were retained as the Khanate of Kalat, supervised by a Political Agent of Kalat.
Under British Rule
In the 20th century, the educated Baloch middle class harboured hopes of their independence from British colonial rule. They formed a nationalist movement Anjuman-i-Ittehad-i-Balochistan in 1931. One of their first campaigns was to fight for the accession of Azam Jan as the Khan of Kalat and for a constitutional government to be established under him. They successfully established Azam Jan as the Khan, but he then sided with the Sardars and forsook the Anjuman. His successor Mir Ahmad Yar Khan was more sympathetic to the Anjuman but averse to upsetting his relations with the British. The Anujman transformed into the Kalat State National Party (KSNP) and continued to fight for independence from the British. The Khanate declared the party illegal in 1939 and exiled its active leaders and activists. This paved the way for the formation in 1939 of new political parties: the Balochistan Muslim League (allied to the Muslim League) and the Anjuman-i-Watan (allied to the Indian National Congress). Led by Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, the Anjuman-i-Watan opposed the partition of India and wanted a united India after the country gained independence from Britain.
During British rule, Balochistan was under the rule of a Chief Commissioner and did not have the same status as other provinces of British India. The Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the period 1927–1947 strived to introduce reforms in Balochistan to bring it on par with other provinces of British India.
Negotiations, The Independence Movement and Partition of India
During the time of the Indian independence movement, public opinion in Balochistan—at least in Quetta and other small towns in northern Balochistan—overwhelmingly favoured Pakistan. The pro-India Congress (which drew support from Hindus and some Muslims), sensing that geographic and demographic compulsions would not allow the province's inclusion into the newly Independent India, began to encourage separatist elements in Balochistan, and other Muslim-majority provinces such as North-West Frontier Province(NWFP).
The Khan of Kalat lent great support to the Pakistan Movement but also desired to declare independence. Lord Mountbatten, however, made it clear that with the lapse of British paramountcy, the princely states would have to join either India or Pakistan, keeping in mind their geographic and demographic compulsions.
On 19 July, Mountbatten called a Round Table Conference meeting between representatives of the State of Kalat and Government of Pakistan. Mountbatten discussed with them the status of Kalat State. The representatives of Kalat argued that Kalat, as per the treaty of 1876, was an independent and sovereign state and not an Indian state. Mountbatten accepted this position for the purpose of negotiations, although Kalat had always been a princely state. Thus, Mountbatten confined the topic of discussion to the leased areas of Quetta, Nushki, Nasirabad, and Bolan. He explained that Pakistan rejected Kalat's claims that these areas should be returned to Kalat.
Pakistan's position was that it would inherit all treaty obligations incurred by India to foreign states. Kalat argued that the leases clearly stated that the other party besides Kalat was the British Government alone. Kalat argued that it was a personal agreement and there was no provision that the leases to the British would be inherited by others. Therefore, since the agreement was between Kalat and the British Government, Pakistan could not be the latter's successor party.
Pakistan did not agree that the agreement was personal as personal agreements by nature implied that only a particular person was involved. Mountbatten also said that according to international law, treaties such as the one being discussed were inherited by successors and not invalidated by a transfer of power. Mountbatten also suggested that in case there was no agreement the matter could be put before an Arbitral Tribunal.
Kalat wished to have further discussions on the matter. Kalat argued that should the leased areas vote between joining Kalat and joining Pakistan, the vote would favour the former. Pakistan disagreed on this point. Kalat also expressed a deep desire to remain on friendly terms with Pakistan and stated that it understood that Jinnah, who was anxious for a correct decision, wanted more time to study the issues between Kalat and Pakistan. Mountbatten, however, suggested that Jinnah not be brought into the discussions.
At Mountbatten's insistence, Kalat and Pakistan signed a standstill agreement, which stipulated that both parties would as soon as possible discuss their relationship concerning Defence and External Affairs. According to Article I:
The Government of Pakistan agrees that Kalat is an independent State, being quite different in status from other States of India.
However, Article IV stated:
...a standstill agreement will be made between Pakistan and Kalat by which Pakistan shall stand committed to all the responsibilities agreements signed by Kalat and the British Government from 1839 to 1947 and by this, Pakistan shall be the legal, constitutional and political successor of the British.
Through this agreement, the British Paramountcy was effectively transferred to Pakistan.
However, without making any agreement with Pakistan and in violation of the standstill agreement, the Khan of Kalat declared independence. Later on, the ruler of Kalat unconditionally signed an Instrument of Accession with Pakistan on 27 March 1948, contrary to the wishes of his state's legislature, being the last of all princely states to do so.
First conflict
After a period of negotiations during which Pakistan used bureaucratic tactics while All India Radio provided 'strange help', Kalat acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948. Ahmad Yar Khan signed the Instrument of Accession, a decision which his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, revolted against in July 1948. Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950. The Princes fought a lone battle without support from the rest of Balochistan. Jinnah and his successors allowed Yar Khan to retain his title until the province's dissolution in 1955.
Second conflict
Nawab Nauroz Khan took up arms from 1958 to 1959 to resist the One Unit policy, which decreased government representation for tribal leaders. He and his followers started a guerrilla war against Pakistan, and were arrested, charged with treason, and imprisoned in Hyderabad. Five of his family members, sons and nephews, were subsequently hanged on charges of treason and aiding in the murder of Pakistani troops. Nawab Nauroz Khan later died in captivity. Nawab Nauroz Khan fought a lone battle as the rest of Balochistan did not support the uprising.