Hurricane Luis was a long-lived and powerful tropical cyclone that severely affected the Leeward Islands during the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season. The system formed from a tropical wave, south of Cape Verde islands west of Africa, on August 28, and attained tropical storm status on August 29. The storm reached hurricane status on August 31 and later developed into a 150 mph (240 km/h) Category 4 hurricane. After striking the Leeward Islands, Luis moved northwest of the Greater Antilles then curved and weakened as it accelerated northeastward. Late on September 10, Luis transitioned to an extratropical cyclone, restrengthened, and made landfall on Newfoundland.
Luis caused extensive damage to Antigua, St. Barthelemy, the island of St. Martin and Anguilla as it affected Bermuda. The storm accounted for 19 confirmed deaths, left nearly 20,000 homeless (mostly in Anguilla, Barbuda, and St. Martin), and affected more than 70,000 people. Total damage was estimated at $3.3 billion (1995 USD) across the affected areas. Luis was the second of three tropical cyclones to affect Guadeloupe in a short period; Hurricane Iris had hit a week before, and Hurricane Marilyn only 10 days after.
Meteorological history
On August 26, 1995, an area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave emerged over the eastern Atlantic Ocean, between the western coast of Africa and the Cape Verde Islands. A low-level circulation center formed and moved westward until it developed a weak surface low on August 27, and at around 1200 UTC on August 27, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) designated the system as Tropical Depression Thirteen. 36 hours later, on August 29, the NHC upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Luis. Although convective activity fluctuated over the next two days as the result of a nearby wind shear, the storm continued to intensify as pressure rose. When the wind shear relented, an eye began to form, and the system attained hurricane status on August 31. It was classified as a Category 3 major hurricane 18 hours later.
As it tracked north-northwestward, Hurricane Luis continued to strengthen, and became a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale on September 2. As it turned further westward, the cyclone maintained a rectilinear slow motion, and the intensity was confirmed by a reconnaissance flight on September 3. At the time of the flight, Luis was located approximately 540 miles (870 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. The storm began to accelerate slightly as it moved along a subtropical ridge, due to the absorption of Tropical Storm Karen by the stronger Iris.
By the time that it approached the Lesser Antilles on September 4, Luis had sustained a wind field measuring from 345 to 365 miles (555 to 587 km) in diameter. On the morning of September 5, the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe, which experienced hurricane-force winds on the northeastern coast of Grande-Terre and La Désirade, had been relatively spared by the storm. The eyewall of the hurricane, however, skimmed Antigua and directly passed over Barbuda as it slowly weakened. During this time, the storm proceeded slowly northwestward, causing moderate damage to Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Eustatius, and Saba. Later, Luis moved along St. Barthelemy, St. Martin, and ultimately crossed Anguilla, where the most powerful winds within the eyewall were estimated to have reached 135 mph (217 km/h), and its central pressure had dropped from 945 to 942 mbar (27.9 to 27.8 inHg).
Luis maintained its Category 4 intensity until September 7, when it was situated approximately 150 mi (240 km) north of Puerto Rico. After seven consecutive days as a major hurricane with maximum sustained winds of at least 115 mph (185 km/h) beginning on September 1, the storm gradually re-curved over the northern Atlantic as a Category 2 hurricane, its wind speed dropping to 110 mph (180 km/h). On September 9, the center of the storm passed 200 miles (320 km) to the west of Bermuda, causing minor damage. Later that day, the storm began to accelerate as it traveled northeast, ahead of a strong trough located to the northwest of Luis. On the afternoon of September 10, Luis began to undergo an extratropical transition as it rapidly approached the Canadian coastline. A ship in the path of the storm reported winds of 138 mph (222 km/h), and Luis was estimated to have maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (190 km/h) as it struck Newfoundland on September 11.
Preparations
Three days before passing over the northern Lesser Antilles, Luis became a Category 4 hurricane and was forecast to avoid areas well to the north, following the path set by Humberto and Karen. However, as Karen neared Iris, it was weakened and absorbed by the stronger storm. This, and the nearby subtropical ridge, ended up steering Luis to the west.
Caribbean
Due to its slow motion, Luis allowed local officials ample time to prepare. Before the storm's arrival, a total of 17 tropical cyclone watches and warnings were declared in several areas throughout the Caribbean. Over the course of September 3, Antigua, Barbuda, Nevis, St. Kitts, St. Martin, Saba, St. Eustatius, Dominica, Guadeloupe, and St. Barthelemy were placed under hurricane watch. At 0000 UTC on September 4, this was upgraded to a hurricane warning for the region from Antigua to St. Martin, and a tropical storm warning for Dominica and Guadeloupe. Six hours later, the British and United States Virgin Islands, as well as Puerto Rico, were placed under hurricane watch. By 2100 UTC, those regions had been upgraded to warning, as well as St. Barthelemy, St. Martin, and Dominica, with Saint Lucia and Martinique under a tropical storm warning.
At 1200 UTC on September 5, the tropical storm warning for St. Lucia was discontinued, and nine hours later, Dominica was downgraded to a tropical storm warning. Throughout September 6–8, all warnings were either downgraded or discontinued. Bermuda was placed under tropical storm watch at 2100 UTC on September 7. This watch was upgraded to a warning at 1500 UTC the next day, and discontinued at 0900 UTC on the 10th.
Canada
The Canadian Hurricane Centre began issuing advisories on the morning of September 8, about 48 hours before Luis' entry into the center's coverage area, as the storm's trajectory began to curve east of Florida. The Maritimes center of the Meteorological Service of Canada issued warnings for the affected areas as early as September 9, 36 hours before the arrival of the storm.
Impact
Lesser Antilles
Antigua and Barbuda
As a result of a direct hit from the Category 4 hurricane, Barbuda experienced 135 mph (217 km/h) and over 10 inches (25 cm) of rain, contributing to very extensive damage. According to Lester Bird, the prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda, most houses were damaged or eradicated at 70% in Barbuda, and nearly 45% of the residences on Antigua were damaged or destroyed by the hurricane as it passed near 30 miles (48 km) to the north of the island. Across the islands, numerous inhabitants experienced power outages and disrupted water systems. The storm ultimately accounted for three deaths, and injured 165 locals. 32,000 inhabitants on both islands were greatly affected, with 1,700 forced to take shelter, and approximately 3,000 left homeless. A United States station on Antigua lost its wind recording equipment when gusts reached 146 mph (235 km/h) and minimum pressure at 971 mbar (28.7 inHg), while an amateur radio reported an unconfirmed gust of 175 mph (282 km/h) in Barbuda. Throughout the country, the total damage from the storm was estimated at $350 million, or 60% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), with most of the damage on Barbuda.
Guadeloupe
Luis caused some damage as it passed near 65 miles (105 km) north of Guadeloupe, predominantly to Grande-Terre. Hurricane-force conditions resulted in moderate damage to homes and roofs, uprooted trees, and severe beach erosion. The Basse-Terre region, meanwhile, received minor damage, except to banana crops that were damaged at nearly 90%, and sugar cane crops on the north at nearly 20%. Overall, 5 to 11 inches (13 to 28 cm) of rain were recorded in the islands, while the mountain regions recorded up to 20 inches (51 cm). The highest rainfall within the 48-hour period was in La Grande Soufrière, where 22.91 inches (58.2 cm) of rain damaged the west coast roads and washed away houses.
The meteorological office in Raizet recorded sustained winds of 48 mph (77 km/h), with gusts that reached near 65 mph (105 km/h). The office also reported a fall in minimal pressure to 994 mbar (29.4 inHg) between 3 and 4am on September 5, and a total of 178 millimetres (7.0 in) of rain across the whole period. Only Desirade, the easternmost island, recorded hurricane-force winds of 75 mph (121 km/h), and a sustained gust at 89 mph (143 km/h) between 3 and 4am on September 5, with a 992 mbar (29.3 inHg) pressure. The storm claimed the life of a 19-year-old French tourist, who had been dragged away by vigorous waves on a pier in eastern Saint-François. The total damage was estimated at 250 million francs ($50 million USD), mostly for the crops and roads.
Saint Barthélemy
The islands suffered extensive damages from 135 mph (217 km/h) winds as the hurricane passed at least 20 miles (32 km) north of Saint Barthelemy. The main weather station recorded wind gust at 100 mph (160 km/h) before the anemometer broke, while other stations suggest wind speeds of 125 mph (201 km/h) and gusts of up to 155 mph (249 km/h). This difference in measurement may be due to local effects produced by mountainous terrain on the island and the aircraft sampling winds at a level above the region of maximum winds. Additionally, minimal recorded pressure was at 948 mbar (28.0 inHg) as the storm made its closest approach and stayed below 1,000 mbar (30 inHg) for at least 24 hours.
Saint Martin
The eyewall of Luis passed 15 to 20 miles (24 to 32 km) northeast of the island of Saint Martin, causing extensive and catastrophic damage to 60% of the area, particularly on the Dutch side as well as destroying Ric Flair's Golds Gym franchise. A total of 6.5 in (17 cm) of rain was recorded on the island's territory over a period of 48 hours, and the storm spawned several F3 tornadoes.
In Grand Case Bay, rough sea conditions and strong winds were responsible for the damage or destruction of 90% of homes. Other towns, such as the French Quarter and Marigot, also reported extensive damage to homes and vegetation. At least 50% of houses in the Collectivity of Saint Martin were damaged, leaving between 950 and 2,000 residents homeless.
The meteorological office at the Grand Case-Espérance Airport estimated some wind gusts of over 130 mph (210 km/h), while an unofficial anemometer in the port of Marigot recorded wind gusts at 126 mph (203 km/h) before the instrument was toppled. One person was reported dead, and, due to lack of insurances, the preliminary cost of Luis on the French Collectivity was 2 billion francs (€300 million, or US$350 million) worth of damage.
The southern part of the island, the Dutch-owned Sint Maarten, received more catastrophic damage than the northern French end. The strongest winds came onshore on the Dutch side, and the capital city of Philipsburg was at least 70% decimated by the storm. Flooding from Luis affected the Great Salt Pond, which deluged several streets.
Of the 70% of residences that were damaged in the storm, nearly 15% became uninhabitable, including businesses, churches, the main airport terminal, some schools, and four hotels. Over 5,000 Haitians living in the Dutch quarter were left homeless, while some towns on the island spent nearly three months without water and power. Of the 1,500 boats sheltered in Simpson Bay Lagoon, nearly 1,300—or 85%—were sunken or run aground. The official death toll in Sint Maarten was eight, with the possibility of more deaths by drowning in the lagoon.
Princess Juliana Airport recorded sustained winds of 87 mph (140 km/h), with maximum gusts of up to 114 mph (183 km/h). The barometric pressure fell, at its lowest, between 963 and 964 mbar (28.4 and 28.5 inHg). Tropical storm-force winds brushed the island for approximately 21 hours, while hurricane-force sustained winds lasted up to eight hours as the hurricane passed with minimal forward speed between 7 and 9 mph (11 and 14 km/h). Total damages on the Dutch side were catastrophic, totaling around US$1.8 billion, and Luis was the most devastating hurricane to hit the islands since Hurricane Donna in 1960.
St. Kitts and Nevis
The eye of Luis passed nearly 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Saint Kitts and Nevis, causing severe beach erosion, moderate damage to residences, and leaving at least 2,000 residents homeless. The storm further damaged local vegetation and some of the road infrastructure, with problems essentially arising from the poor water system on the islands. Total damage ultimately reached $197 million.