The Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739 between Russia and the Ottoman Empire was caused by the Ottoman Empire's war with Persia and the continuing raids by the Crimean Tatars. The war also represented Russia's ongoing struggle for access to the Black Sea. In 1737, the Habsburg monarchy joined the war on Russia's side, known in historiography as the Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739.
Russian diplomacy before the war
By the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War, Russia had successfully secured a favorable international situation. This was achieved through the signing of treaties with Iran from 1732 to 1735 (which was engaged in a conflict with the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1735) and by supporting the accession of Augustus III to the Polish throne in 1735, instead of Stanislaw Leszczynski, who had been nominated by pro-Ottoman France. Austria had been Russia's ally since 1726.
Initial stage of the war in 1735–1736
The casus belli was the raids of the Crimean Tatars on the Cossack Hetmanate at the end of 1735 and the Crimean Khan's military campaign in the Caucasus. In 1736, the Russian commanders envisioned the seizure of Azov and the Crimean Peninsula.
In 1735, on the eve of the war, Russia made peace with Persia, returning all the remaining territory conquered during the Russo-Persian War (Treaty of Ganja).
On 20 May 1736, the Russian Dnieper Army (62,000 men), under the command of Field Marshal Burkhard Christoph von Münnich, stormed the Crimean fortifications at Perekop and occupied Bakhchysarai on June 17. The Crimean khans failed to defend their territory and repel the invasion. In 1736, 1737, and 1738, Russian expeditionary armies broke through their defensive positions, pushing deep into the Crimean Peninsula, driving the Tatar noblemen into the hills and forcing Khan Fetih II Giray to take refuge at sea. They burned Gozlev, Karasubazar, and the khan's palace in the Crimean capital, Bakhchysarai. Additionally, they captured the Ottoman fortress at Azov.
Khans Qaplan I Giray and Fetih II Giray were deposed by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud I for their incompetence. However, the years 1737 to 1739 were notable plague years, and all sides of the conflict were crippled by disease and unsanitary conditions. Despite his success and a string of battlefield victories, the outbreak of an epidemic coupled with shortages forced Münnich to retreat to Ukraine.
On 19 June 1736, the Russian Don Army of 28,000 men, under the command of General Peter Lacy, with support from the Don Flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Peter Bredahl, seized the fortress of Azov. The Crimean campaign of 1736 ended with Russian withdrawal into Ukraine, resulting in an estimated 30,000 lives lost. Only 2,000 of these losses were related to war, while the rest were due to disease, hunger, and famine. In July 1737, Münnich's army stormed the Turkish fortress of Ochakov. Lacy's army, already 40,000 men strong, marched into Crimea the same month and captured Karasubazar (see Lacy's campaign to Crimea). However, Lacy and his troops had to leave Crimea due to a lack of supplies.
The course of the war in 1737–1738
In July 1737, the Habsburg monarchy entered the war against the Ottoman Empire. Initial incursion of Habsburg armies into Ottoman Serbia resulted in the capture of Niš, that was followed by the pro-Habsburg Serbian uprising against the Ottoman rule. On the western section of the front, Habsburg armies were defeated at the Battle of Banja Luka on 4 August 1737. There were no significant military operations in 1738. The Russian Army had to leave Ochakov and Kinburn due to a plague outbreak. In August, Russia, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire began negotiations in Nemirov, which would turn out to be fruitless.
According to an Ottoman Muslim account of the war translated into English by C. Fraser, Bosnian Muslim women fought in battles, having "acquired the courage of heroes" against the Austrian Germans at the siege of Osterwitch-atyk (Östroviç-i âtık) fortress. Women also fought in the defense of the fortresses of Būzin (Büzin) and Chetin (Çetin). Their bravery was also described in a French account. Novi Pazar, Zvornik, Gradiška, and Banja luka were also struck by the Austrians.
The final stage of the war in 1739
In the summer of 1739, the Russian army, commanded by Field Marshal Münnich, crossed the Dniester river by the late July, defeated the Turks at the Battle of Stavuchany on August 28 [O.S. August 17], and occupied the fortresses of Khotyn on August 30 [O.S. August 19]. Proceeding further, Münnich crossed the Prut river by September 10 [O.S. August 30], while his advance units, headed by young Constantine Cantemir, son of late Antioch Cantemir, former Prince of Moldavia (d. 1726), reached Iași, the capital city of the Principality of Moldavia on September 12 [O.S. September 1]. Münnich entered Iași on September 14 [O.S. September 3] and pressed Moldavian boyars to accept the annexation of Moldavia on September 16 [O.S. September 5].
However, the main Habsburg army suffered a strategic defeat at the Battle of Grocka near Belgrade, on 21–22 July. Field marshal Wallis retreated into Belgrade Fortress, while Turks laid the siege of the city. Already on 31 July, the imperial government in Vienna decided to relieve Wallis of his previously granted powers to negotiate with the Ottomans, and those powers were consequently transferred to count Neipperg, who arrived at Belgrade on 16 August, and then proceeded to the camp of the Grand Vizier on 18 August, thus initiating peace negotiations. There he found himself isolated, and dependent on the French mediator, marquis Louis Sauveur de Villeneuve. On 1 September, Neipperg agreed to sign a preliminary peace agreement with the Ottomans that included the loss of Belgrade, not knowing that his original instructions were no longer valid, since the imperial government in Vienna in the meantime decided not to surrender the city, and wait for the outcome of the Russian campaign in Moldavia. News on the conclusion of the preliminary peace treaty reached Vienna on 7 September, but it was too late for reversal. On 18 September, the final peace Treaty of Belgrade was signed, thus confirming Habsburg loss of Wallachia Minor (Oltenia), central Serbia with Belgrade, and the Bosnian section of Posavina.
Using mediating powers granted to him by the Russian court, Villeneuve also negotiated a separate Russo-Turkish preliminary peace treaty, that was signed on the same day (18 September) in Belgrade. Faced with the threat of a possible Swedish invasion, and consequent Ottoman alliances with Sweden, Poland, and Prussia, the Russian government decided to accept terms that were reached through the French mediation. On 3 October, the final Russo-Turkish Treaty of Niš was signed, thus ending the Russo-Ottoman war. The Azak Fortress was demolished and its lands were turned into neutral territory as it became a centre of attack in line with the demands for access to the Black Sea. And consolidated Russia's control over the Zaporizhia in exchange for Russia abandoning its claims to Crimea and Moldova. For Austria, the war proved a stunning defeat. The Russian forces were much more successful on the field, but they lost tens of thousands to disease. The Russians had access to the Black Sea but were not allowed to maintain any fleet in the Azov and Black Sea.
Military details
Geography
The Ottoman Empire held forts along the north shore of the Black Sea and on the eastern side of the Balkans. Azov kept the Don Cossacks out of the Sea of Azov. Kaffa dominated the Crimean Khanate. Or Kapi, behind the Perekop trenches, guarded the entrance to Crimea. Ochakov, at the mouth of the Dnieper, kept the Dnieper Cossacks out of the Black Sea. Khotyn, on the upper Dniester, watched the Polish Commonwealth. The Turkish border was close to the current Ukrainian border along the Dniester. Polish claims extended to the Dnieper, except for Kiev. Russia had a very vague border about 100 or more miles south of the current border. The semi-independent Zaporozhian Cossacks were along the Dnieper bend. The Crimean Khanate and its Nogai steppe allies raided Poland and Russia and sold the captives to the Turks at Kaffa.
Before 1735
In 1722, Russia and Turkey took advantage of Persian weakness to capture the northwest part of the Persian Empire. Russia took the west side of the Caspian and the Ottomans got as far as Tabriz. Nader Shah slowly restored Persian power. By 1734, Persia was reconquering its land south of the Caucasus, and it was clear that Russia could not hold its gains. In 1733 or 1734, the Turks ordered Crimea to send a force across the north Caucasus to attack the Persians. Eropkin on the Terek river tried to stop them and lost 55 men. The army went down the west shore of the Caspian as far as the Samur River, where it was recalled by Turkey for unexplained reasons.
1735: War starts
In 1735, the Crimean khan led 80,000 men across the North Caucasus and south to Derbent. By the end of 1735, he received news of Leontiev's raid on Crimea and decided to turn back. During his return journey, he spent time foraging in Kabardia and eventually reached Crimea in the spring of 1736. Crimean interference in the Caucasus served as one pretext for the war.
In March 1735, through the Treaty of Ganja, Russia returned its territorial gains to Persia and forged an alliance with Persia against Turkey. With Crimean troops absent from the peninsula and the Turks engaged with Persia, Russia seized the opportunity for a surprise attack. General Münnich moved south and discovered that his army would not be ready until the following year. In order not to waste that year's campaigning season, he dispatched Leontiev on a raid.
1735: Leontiev's raid: Leontiev set off on 1 October 1735, far too late in the season. He started near the Samara River and marched south, east of the Dnieper bend. At Konska Voda, he killed about 1,000 Nogais and stole their livestock. He turned west with the river, and on 16 October, reached the Russian fort of Kamenny Zaton, about 10 days' march from Perekop. Here, he turned back because of the cold and the loss of 3,000 horses. The next day, a snowstorm killed another 1,000 horses. By late November, he was back where he started, having lost 9,000 of his 40,000 men and about 9,000 horses.
1736: 1st Crimea, Azov, Kinburn
1736: Azov captured: Around 30 March 1736, Münnich and 5,000 men besieged Azov. Additional soldiers arrived, and on 7 April, Münnich left to join the main force on the Dnieper. In May Peter Lacy took over and on 26 June the Turks surrendered on condition of safe passage. Lacy set off for Crimea, but turned back when he heard of Münnich's withdrawal.
1736: First Russian invasion of Crimea: In mid-April, Münnich set off south with 54,000 men and 8,000 or 9,000 carts, following Leontiev's route east of the Dnieper bend. On 4 May, the Tatars were defeated at the Bela Zirka river near Kamenny Zaton and withdrew to Perekop. By 19 May, Russia had 30,000 troops facing Perekop. On 20 May, the wall was breached, and on 22 May, the 2,254 Turks in the Or Qapi fort surrendered on parole.
Russia now entered Crimea for the first time. On 5 June, they raided Gozleve for supplies. On 17 June, they captured Bakhchisarai. The khan's palace was burned, either accidentally or deliberately. On 23 June, they burned the kalga's seat at Ak Mechet. Most of the Crimean army had scattered to the hills, while the Turks withdrew to Kaffa. Münnich hoped to capture Kaffa before the Turks could send reinforcements, but on 25 June, he decided to withdraw. Dysentery had first been noted on 7 June. Soon, a third of the army was sick, and many of the rest weakened. There was not enough food, fresh water, or fodder to support his army. By 18 July, they were back on the Samara river. Half of the army had been lost, 2,000 in fighting, and the rest from disease. Because of the invasion, Crimean khan Qaplan I Giray was replaced by Fetih II Giray.
1736: Kinburn captured: After Perekop was captured, Leontev and 13,000 men were sent west to capture the fort on the Kinburn Peninsula, south of Ochakov. The garrison was allowed to abandon the fort and cross to Ochakov on the opposite bank. 250 Russian prisoners were freed there.