The West New Guinea dispute (1950–1962), also known as the West Irian dispute, was a diplomatic and political conflict between the Netherlands and Indonesia over the territory of Dutch New Guinea. While the Netherlands had ceded sovereignty over most of the Dutch East Indies to Indonesia on 27 December 1949 following an independence struggle, it retained control over its colony on the western half of New Guinea. The Indonesian government claimed this territory as well, on the basis that it had belonged to the Dutch East Indies and that the new Republic of Indonesia was the legitimate successor to the former Dutch colony.
During the first phase of the dispute (1950–1954), Indonesia pursued bilateral negotiations with the Netherlands. During the second phase (1954–1958), Indonesia attempted to raise support for its territorial claims in the United Nations General Assembly. During the third phase (1960–1962), Indonesia pursued a policy of confrontation against the Netherlands which combined diplomatic, political, and economic pressure with limited military force. The final stage of the confrontation with Indonesia also involved a planned military invasion of the territory. The Indonesians also secured military weapons and political and military support from the Soviet Union, which induced the United States to intervene in the conflict as a third-party mediator between Indonesia and the Netherlands. Following the New York Agreement on 15 August 1962, the Netherlands, under U.S. pressure, handed West New Guinea over to a United Nations Temporary Executive Authority, which subsequently handed the territory over to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. Following a controversial plebiscite in 1969, West New Guinea was formally integrated into Indonesia.
Historical background
Origins
Prior to the arrival of the Dutch, Indonesian principalities such as the Sultanate of Bacan, the Sultanate of Ternate and the Sultanate of Tidore claimed suzerainty over parts of Western New Guinea. These sultanates collected tributes from local rulers in the form of massoy, nutmeg, turtle shell, other spices, bird of paradise feathers, resins, and slaves or their value equivalent in other goods, which if not fulfilled would be punished by a hongi expedition, usually conducted by other rulers on behalf of the sultan. In 1828, the Netherlands established a settlement in Western New Guinea and also proclaimed sovereignty over the part of the island lying west of 141 degrees longitude. Considering that New Guinea had little economic value for them, the Dutch promoted Tidore as suzerain of Papua. By 1849, Tidore's borders had been extended to the proximity of the current international border between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Dutch activity in New Guinea was minimal until 1898 when the Dutch established an administrative centre, which was subsequently followed by missionaries and traders. Under Dutch rule, commercial links were developed between West New Guinea and Eastern Indonesia. In 1883, New Guinea was divided between the Netherlands, Britain, and Germany; with Australia occupying the German territory in 1914. In 1901, the Netherlands formally purchased West New Guinea from the Sultanate of Tidore, incorporating it into the Netherlands East Indies. During World War Two, Western New Guinea was occupied by the Japanese but was later recaptured by the Allies, who restored Dutch rule over the territory.
Following the Indonesian National Revolution, the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia, the successor state to the Netherlands East Indies, on 27 December 1949. However, the Dutch refused to include Netherlands New Guinea in the new Indonesian Republic and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Following the failure of the Dutch and Indonesians to resolve their differences over West New Guinea during the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference in late 1949, it was decided that the present status quo of the territory would be maintained and then negotiated bilaterally one year after the date of the transfer of sovereignty. However, both sides were still unable to resolve their differences in 1950, which led the Indonesian President Sukarno to accuse the Dutch of reneging on their promises to negotiate the handover of the territory. On 17 August 1950, Sukarno dissolved the United States of Indonesia and proclaimed the unitary Republic of Indonesia.
Competing claims
"... The issue of Irian is not about ethnology; it is also not about whether we are ready (to administer) or not... The issue of Irian is about colonialism or not colonialism, about colonialism or independence. A part of our homeland is still colonized by the Dutch, this is a reality, and we don't want this. We want all of our homeland to be independent, all of our homeland "from Sabang to Merauke", zonder (without) exception ..."
— Sukarno, 17 August 1950
The Dutch argued that the territory did not belong to Indonesia because the Melanesian Papuans were ethnically and geographically different from other Indonesians, had always been administrated separately, did not participate in the Indonesian Revolution and that the Papuans did not want to be under Indonesian control. According to the political scientist Arend Lijphart, other underlying Dutch motives included West New Guinea's lucrative economic resources, its strategic importance as a Dutch naval base, and its potential role for housing the Netherlands' surplus population including Eurasians who had become displaced by the Indonesian Revolution. The Dutch also wanted to maintain a regional presence and to secure their economic interests in Indonesia.
On the other hand, Indonesia regarded West New Guinea as an intrinsic part of the country on the basis that Indonesia was the successor state to the Dutch East Indies. A number of Papuans participated in the momentous 1928 Youth Pledge, which is the first proclamation of an "Indonesian identity" which symbolically was attended by numerous ethnic youth groups from all over Indonesia. Indonesian irredentist sentiments were also inflamed by the fact that several Indonesian political prisoners (mainly leftist and communist from the failed 1926 uprising) had been interned at a remote prison camp north of Merauke called Boven-Digoel in 1935 prior to World War II. They made contact with many Papuan civil servants which formed Indonesian revolution groups in Papua. Some support also came from native kingdoms mainly around Bomberai Peninsula which had extensive relationship with Sultanate of Tidore, these efforts was led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan, King of Sekar in the region's western part. These sentiments were also reflected in the popular Indonesian revolutionary slogan Indonesia Merdeka — dari Sabang sampai Merauke ("Free Indonesia — from Sabang to Merauke"). The slogan indicates the stretch of Indonesian territory from the most western part in Sumatra, Sabang, and the most eastern part in Merauke, a small city in West New Guinea. Sukarno also contended that the continuing Dutch presence in West New Guinea was an obstacle to the process of nation-building in Indonesia and that it would also encourage secessionist movements.
The political dimension
Local Indonesian nationalist movement
In 1944, Jan van Eechoud set up a school for bureaucrats in Hollandia (now Jayapura). One early headmaster of the school was Soegoro Atmoprasojo, an Indonesian nationalist graduate of Taman Siswa and former Boven-Digoel prisoners who fled to Australia after Japanese occupation, he later on tried to revolt on 31 December 1945 which failed. Many of these school early graduates and former associates of Soegoro would go on to found Indonesian independence movement in Western New Guinea, while some also go on to support Dutch authorities and pursue Papuan independence. The news of Indonesian independence proclamation arrived in New Guinea primarily through shipping laborers associated with Sea Transport Union of Indonesia (Sarpelindo), who were working for ships under the flag of Australian and Dutch. This led to the formation of the Committee on Indonesian Independence (KIM) in Abepura (currently in Jayapura) in October 1946. Originally it was led by J.A. Gerungan, a woman doctor who at that time led a hospital in Abepura-Hollandia. In December 1946, the leadership of KIM Jayapura changed to be led by Martin Indey, a former colonial police who were former prison guard of Soegoro. His deputy was Corinus Krey while the secretary is Petrus Walebong. KIM was one of the first Indonesian nationalist groups in New Guinea, whose members were mostly former associates of Soegoro. Simultaneously another separate Indonesian nationalist movement in New Guinea formed when G.S.S.J. Ratulangie, was exiled at Serui, along with his six staff by NICA on 5 July 1946. In this exile he met with Silas Papare, who was also exiled there due to his participation in Soegoro's revolt on 31 December 1945. This meeting resulted in the formation of an organization called Indonesian Irian Independence Party (PKII) on 29 November 1946. PKII was led by Silas Papare, alongside Alwi Rahman as chiefs, Ari Kamarea, Andarias Samberi as secretaries, and Thung Tjing Ek as treasurer. A year later, on 17 August 1947, Silas Papare and former students of Soegoro, including Albert Karubuy, Marthen Indey, Johans Ariks, Lodewijk Mandatjan, Barent Mandatjan, Semuel Damianus Kawab, Franz Joseph Djohari and their supporters would held a red and white flag-raising ceremony to commemorate the Indonesian independence day.
KIM and PKII members began to start movements in other areas of New Guinea, most of these were unsuccessful, and the perpetrators were either imprisoned or killed. In Manokwari, a movement called Red and White Movement (GMP) was founded, which was led by Petrus Walebong and Samuel D. Kawab. This movement later spread to Babo, Kokas, Fakfak, and Sorong. In Biak, a local branch of KIM was transformed into Party of Indonesian Independence (PIM) under the head of Lukas Rumkorem. Lukas would be captured and exiled to Hollandia, with the charge he instigated violence among local population. Still the movement did not disappear in Biak, Stevanus Yoseph together with Petero Jandi from Polongbangkeng's group, Terianus Simbiak, Honokh Rambrar, Petrus Kaiwai and Hermanus Rumere on 19 March 1948, instigated another revolt. The Dutch authorities had to send reinforcements from Jayapura. The Dutch imposed a harder penalty, with capital punishment for Petero Jandi, and live sentence to Stevanus Yoseph. In Sorong, a revolt happened under the movement of Pioneers of Independence Organization in 1946. This organization formed by former Heiho was led by Sangaji Malan. Meanwhile, besides pioneers of independence organization and the branch of PKII groups, another organization was formed on the 17 August 1947, called the Association of Young Men of Indonesia (PPI) under the leadership of Abraham Koromath.
Around the Bomberai Peninsula area of Fakfak, specifically in Kokas, Indonesian nationalism emerged under the King Al-Alam Ugar Sekar, Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan. He had history of disobedience against the Dutch authorities and was imprisoned in Hollandia. In prison, he managed to write a letter to Husni Thamrin, a member of Volksraad in Batavia and influential veteran member of Indonesian nationalist, who succeeded in convincing the court to release him. On 1 March 1946, he ordered that all the Dutch's flags in Kokas to be changed into Indonesian flags. The Dutch authorities later aided with incoming troops from Sorong arrested the King Rumagesan and he was given capital punishment, although later commuted to live imprisonment under popular demands. In 1946 in Kaimana, son of commissioned King of Sran, Muhammad Achmad Aituarauw founded an organization called Independence With Kaimana, West Irian (MBKIB). Through MBKIB, the people boycotted the celebration of Queen Wilhelmina anniversary every 31 August. In response of this activity, Aituarauw was arrested by the Dutch and was exiled to Ayamaru for 10 years in 1948. Other movements opposing the Dutch under local Papuan kings includes, New Guinea Islamic Union (KING) led by Ibrahim Bauw, King of Rumbati, Gerakan Pemuda Organisasi Muda led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan and Abbas Iha, and Persatuan Islam Kaimana (PIK) of Kaimana led by Usman Saad and King of Namatota, Kasim Ombair.