The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: guerra civil española) was fought in Spain from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans and the Nationalist rebels. Republicans loyal to the left-leaning Popular Front government of the Second Spanish Republic included socialists, anarchists, communists, and separatists, supported by the Soviet Union. The opposing Nationalists were an alliance of Falangists, monarchists, conservatives, and traditionalists, who established the military-led Spanish State and were directly aided by an intervention from Fascist Italy and participation of Nazi Germany. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war was variously viewed as class struggle, religious struggle, or struggle between republican democracy and dictatorship, revolution and counterrevolution, or communism and fascism. The Nationalists won the war in early 1939, and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975.
The war began after the partial failure of the coup d'état of July 1936 against the Popular Front government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces. They were supported by right-wing groups including the Christian traditionalist party CEDA; monarchists, including both the opposing Alfonsists and the religious conservative Carlists; and the Falange Española de las JONS, a fascist political party. However, rebelling units in almost all important cities did not gain control, leaving Spain militarily and politically divided.
The Nationalists were initially led by a military junta, until General Francisco Franco was appointed supreme leader on 1 October 1936 of what he called the Spanish State. The rebellion was countered by the arming of left-wing social movements and parties, and the formation of militias. This led to rapid socioeconomic and political transformation in the Republican zone, referred to as the Spanish Revolution. The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Fascist Italy which conducted a large-scale intervention and Nazi Germany which sent its Condor Legion, while the Republican government received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, continued to recognise the Republican government, but followed official policies of non-intervention. Despite this, tens of thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict, mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades.
Franco gradually emerged as the primary leader of the Nationalists, becoming the dictator of the Spanish State by 1937 and co-opting Falangism, gaining recognition as a fascist leader. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937 and besieging Madrid. After much of Catalonia was captured in 1938 and 1939 and Madrid was cut off from Barcelona, the Republican military position became hopeless. On 5 March 1939, in response to allegedly increasing communist dominance of the Republican government and the deteriorating military situation, Colonel Segismundo Casado led a military coup against the Republican government, intending to seek peace with the Nationalists. These peace overtures, however, were rejected by Franco. Following internal conflict between Republican factions in Madrid in the same month, Franco entered the capital and declared victory on 1 April 1939. Hundreds of thousands of those associated with the Republicans fled Spain, mostly to refugee camps in southern France; many of those who stayed were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists.
The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired worldwide, and for the many atrocities that occurred. Organised purges occurred in territory captured by Franco's forces to consolidate power. Mass executions took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, with the participation of local authorities varying by location.
The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: guerra civil española) was fought in Spain from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans and the Nationalist rebels. Republicans loyal to the left-leaning Popular Front government of the Second Spanish Republic included socialists, anarchists, communists, and separatists, supported by the Soviet Union. The opposing Nationalists were an alliance of Falangists, monarchists, conservatives, and traditionalists, who established the military-led Spanish State and were directly aided by an intervention from Fascist Italy and participation of Nazi Germany. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war was variously viewed as class struggle, religious struggle, or struggle between republican democracy and dictatorship, revolution and counterrevolution, or communism and fascism. The Nationalists won the war in early 1939, and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975.
The war began after the partial failure of the coup d'état of July 1936 against the Popular Front government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces. They were supported by right-wing groups including the Christian traditionalist party CEDA; monarchists, including both the opposing Alfonsists and the religious conservative Carlists; and the Falange Española de las JONS, a fascist political party. However, rebelling units in almost all important cities did not gain control, leaving Spain militarily and politically divided.
The Nationalists were initially led by a military junta, until General Francisco Franco was appointed supreme leader on 1 October 1936 of what he called the Spanish State. The rebellion was countered by the arming of left-wing social movements and parties, and the formation of militias. This led to rapid socioeconomic and political transformation in the Republican zone, referred to as the Spanish Revolution. The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Fascist Italy which conducted a large-scale intervention and Nazi Germany which sent its Condor Legion, while the Republican government received support from the Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, continued to recognise the Republican government, but followed official policies of non-intervention. Despite this, tens of thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in the conflict, mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades.
Franco gradually emerged as the primary leader of the Nationalists, becoming the dictator of the Spanish State by 1937 and co-opting Falangism, gaining recognition as a fascist leader. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937 and besieging Madrid. After much of Catalonia was captured in 1938 and 1939 and Madrid was cut off from Barcelona, the Republican military position became hopeless. On 5 March 1939, in response to allegedly increasing communist dominance of the Republican government and the deteriorating military situation, Colonel Segismundo Casado led a military coup against the Republican government, intending to seek peace with the Nationalists. These peace overtures, however, were rejected by Franco. Following internal conflict between Republican factions in Madrid in the same month, Franco entered the capital and declared victory on 1 April 1939. Hundreds of thousands of those associated with the Republicans fled Spain, mostly to refugee camps in southern France; many of those who stayed were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists.
The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired worldwide, and for the many atrocities that occurred. Organised purges occurred in territory captured by Franco's forces to consolidate power. Mass executions took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, with the participation of local authorities varying by location.
After the restoration, Carlists and anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy. Alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped to bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia. Conscription was a controversial policy that was eventually implemented by the government of Spain. As evidenced by the Tragic Week in 1909, resentment and resistance continued well into the 20th century.
Spain was neutral in World War I. Following the war, wide swathes of Spanish society, including the armed forces, united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government in Madrid, but these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Popular perception of communism as a major threat significantly increased during this period.
There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities. Consequently, King Alfonso XIII of Spain, relenting to popular pressure for a greater voice, called municipal elections for 12 April 1931. Left-wing entities such as the Socialists and Liberal Republicans won almost all the provincial capitals and, following the resignation of the government of Aznar-Cabañas, Alfonso XIII fled the country. The Second Spanish Republic was formed and remained in place for five years until the Spanish Civil War commenced.
Second Republic
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became the provisional government, with Alcalá-Zamora himself as president and head of state. The republic had broad support from all segments of society.
However, according to José Ángel Sánchez Asiaín, the first plans of a counter-revolution against the Republic were discussed on the day when it was proclaimed, when representatives of monarchist circles, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the future leader of the Falange, and José Calvo Sotelo, one of the future leaders of the monarchist party Spanish Renovation, "met to lay down the financial foundations for subverting the Republic." An immediate action did not follow, but by March 1934 the conspirators would convince Benito Mussolini, the leader of Fascist Italy, to agree to aid a future coup.
In May 1931, an incident in which a taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clerical violence throughout Madrid and the south-west regions of the country. The slow response on the part of the government disillusioned the right. In June and July, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) called several strikes, leading to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard, and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the Spanish Army against the CNT in Seville. This led many workers to believe the Second Spanish Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy, and the CNT announced its intention of overthrowing it by starting a revolution.
Constituent Cortes and left-wing government (1931–1933)
Elections in June 1931 returned to office a large majority of Republicans and Socialists. With the onset of the Great Depression, the government tried to assist rural areas of Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and redistributing land tenure to farm workers. Newly established labour arbitration boards regulated salaries, contracts, and working hours, but were more favourable to workers than employers. Class struggle intensified as landowners turned to counterrevolutionary organisations and local oligarchs to maintain control. Strikes, workplace theft, arson, robbery and assaults on shops, strikebreakers, employers, and machines became increasingly common.
Republican Manuel Azaña became prime minister of a minority government in October 1931. In December, a new reformist, liberal and democratic constitution was declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularisation of the Catholic country, which included the abolition of Catholic schools and charities, a move which was met with opposition.
The first military coup against the Republic was planned by groups of monarchist generals with the support of exiled monarchist ministers, including Calvo Sotelo. The attempted coup which became known as Sanjurjada ended in failure. Several hundred generals were dismissed, prominent monarchists were imprisoned or had to flee abroad, and the aristocracy was 'punished' with radicalization of the agrarian reform. The coup contributed to the radicalization of the left.
The extreme right did not abandon their plans for overthrowing the Republic, as manifested in the foundation of the Spanish Renovation and a small fascist party Falange Española, the rise of the militant Carlist movement (Traditionalist Communion, Requeté militias), and propaganda of legitimacy of a military uprising spread by such organizations as Acción Española. Fascism lacked broad popular support, but historians Julián Casanova describe the culture of the Spanish anti-Republican right as proto-fascist, similar to Italian "pre-Fascism" and the German Völkisch movement. The anti-Republican right was supported within the Church, especially by its Integrist groups, and the army. At the same time, the authority of the Republic was also undermined by an anarchist insurrection which culminated in the Casas Viejas massacre of the anarchists and was followed by state repression.
Right-wing government (1933–1935)
In November 1933, right-wing parties won the general election. The causal factors included increased resentment of the incumbent government due to its inability to counter pressure from the employers' associations, economic instability, including the failure of the agrarian reform to significantly improve the living conditions of rural labourers; the recent enfranchisement of women in Spain, most of whom voted for centre-right parties, the breakup of the coalition between the Radical Republican Party and the Socialists, the failure of the left to form an electoral coalition similar to the one of the Radicals and the right, and the opposition of the anarchists to the Socialists following the Casas Viejas incident. Earlier the anarchists had voted for left-wing parties, yet during the 1933 elections they either voted for the Radicals or abstained. Among the members of the victorious coalition was a new party, the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups (CEDA). The left viewed the CEDA not only as a threat to their progressive reforms, but to the Republic in general, and specifically as a fascist party. The CEDA and its leader Gil Robles proclaimed their goals to dissolve workers' movements and parliamentary democracy, purge "Marxists, Freemasons, Separatists and Jews", and establish an authoritarian corporate state, praising Benito Mussolini of Fascist Italy, Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany and Engelbert Dollfuss of the Austrian Ständestaat. While Gil Robles rejected such aspects of fascism as reliance on violence, his criticism of fascism was poorly received by his own followers. The left rejected the validity of the election results on the grounds that the Socialists gained more votes than any party of the Radical-right coalition, and that the elections in southern areas were subject to alleged malpractice, and such possible violations as harassment of the voters by employers and right-wing groups. They unsuccessfully attempted to have President Niceto Alcalá-Zamora cancel the electoral results. Concerned about CEDA's monarchist leanings and its plans to alter the constitution, he asked the Radical Party leader Alejandro Lerroux to form a government instead of Gil Robles of CEDA, the largest party in parliament. Although CEDA did not formally join Lerroux's cabinet, it exerted indirect influence because the coalition government depended on its parliamentary support. CEDA reinforced this leverage by threatening to withdraw cooperation. Later, Gil Robles claimed that the Radicals were “carrying out CEDA's programme.”
Events in the period after November 1933, called the "black biennium", seemed to make a civil war more likely. Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party (RRP) formed a government, reversing changes made by the previous administration and granting amnesty to Sanjurjo and his collaborators. The Civil Guard adopted "preventive brutality" against workers' movements. Some monarchists joined with the newly formed Falange Española y de las JONS ("Falange") to help achieve their aims. Through Antonio Goicoechea, who would later play a role in the Italian intervention in the Civil War, in 1934 a group of monarchist conspirators within the army reached an agreement with Benito Mussolini, who had supported contacts with anti-Republican circles since 1932 and promised to supply weapons to the plotters and subsidized the Falange. The defeat in the elections and its consequences led to disenchantment with parliamentarism and radicalization of the Socialists. The increasing militancy within the Socialist workers was followed by Francisco Largo Caballero's adopting revolutionary Marxist rhetoric which justified revolutionism as a way to combat rising fascism, uncharacteristic of European social democratic mainstream and the reformist traditions of the PSOE. The CNT adopted a similar rhetoric in the wake of the elections, threatening with a revolution if "Fascist tendencies" would win the elections. Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities, and militancy continued to increase, reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval, rather than peaceful means to achieve solutions. A small insurrection by anarchists occurred in December 1933 in response to CEDA's victory, in which around 100 people died.
Socialists led by Largo Caballero decided to launch a 'revolution' if the CEDA entered the government, something, according to Paul Preston, Largo Caballero believed would never happen; this decision was known within the government. The Socialists continued calling local economic strikes, admitting their lack of preparation for actual revolutionary actions, while Gil Robles and his supporter Rafael Salazar Alonso, the Minister of the Interior, stressed the need to provoke the "revolution" "before it is well prepared." The government increased repression against Socialists, deporting their supporters, and entered censorship, justifying its measures with an alleged threat of a revolutionary strike. The preparations of the Socialists for a possible insurrection had been no secret and was easily suppressed by the police. General Francisco Franco was called to conduct military exercises coinciding with a coming uprising. On 1 October, Largo Caballero resigned as the President of the PSOE and its revolutionary committee. On 4 October, Lerroux formed a government with three members of the CEDA. The insurrection launched in response became known as the Revolution of 1934. In most of Spain, it was suppressed with little resistance, with the Socialist leadership demonstrating its lack of preparation and will to fulfill their revolutionary threats. However, major action took place in the province of Asturias in what became known as the Asturian Revolution of 1934.