The Alexandria expedition of 1807, also known as the Fraser expedition, as an unsuccessful attempt by British forces to capture the Egyptian city of Alexandria during the Anglo-Turkish War. The aim was to secure a base of operations against the Ottoman Empire and the French Empire in the Mediterranean Sea. It was part of a larger British strategy against the Franco-Ottoman alliance negotiated by Sultan Selim III.
Although Alexandria was quickly captured and occupied, British attempts to proceed inland were rebuffed, resulting in the invaders being defeated twice in battles at Rosetta (Rashid; the port that guarded the entrance to the Nile), sustaining hundreds of casualties. Many were captured during the second siege of Rosetta. British prisoners of war were marched to Cairo, where many hundreds of severed heads from their slain comrades were displayed between rows of stakes. The prisoners were either condemned to hard labour or sold into slavery.
The remaining British forces in Egypt were forced to retreat to Alexandria, where they remained besieged and unable to gather supplies. Using this trapped army and his British prisoners as a bargaining tool, Viceroy Muhammad Ali compelled the British commanders to cease further operations in Egypt. The British then agreed to embark on their transports and leave Alexandria, having not gained any significant position of influence in Egypt or reached any specific goals towards influencing the Ottoman Empire's improving relations with France. In Egypt, the expedition united the populace behind Muhammad Ali, who proceeded to seize power.
Background
The expedition began in mid-February 1807 when a force of British troops, deployed in Calabria and Sicily, were ordered by General Fox in Messina to embark on transports. The mission was rumoured to be destined for Constantinople. Meanwhile, John Thomas Duckworth, appointed second in command of the Mediterranean Fleet, sailed for Constantinople. However, he failed to provide effective support for Dmitry Senyavin's Imperial Russian Navy during the Dardanelles Operation. After departing from Constantinople, Duckworth, as an Admiral of the White Squadron, was to rendezvous with the transports in Aboukir Bay. By 17 March, the fleet of transports, with nearly 6,000 British troops embarked and approached Alexandria under the command of General Alexander Mackenzie-Fraser.
Occupation of Alexandria
The appearance of the British transports off Alexandria was unexpected. On 20 March, HMS Tigre captured two Ottoman frigates, Uri Bahar (40 guns) and Uri Nasard (34 guns), and the corvette Fara Numa (16 guns). HMS Apollo, along with 19 other transports, had separated from the main force on 7 March and did not participate in the initial landings.
At this time, the city garrison consisted of Albanian troops, with the French Consul-General, Bernardino Drovetti, attempting to force them to repel the British landing west of the city. Despite the rough waves, nearly 700 troops with five field guns, along with 56 seamen commanded by Lieutenant James Boxer, were able to disembark without opposition near the ravine running from Lake Mareotis to the sea. These troops breached the palisaded entrenchments at eight on 18 March. Fortunately for the British, they did not encounter serious resistance because the lines stretching from Fort des Baines to Lake Mareotis included eight guns in three batteries and 13 guns in the fort on the right flank. British casualties were light; however, the Pompey Gate (also known as Pompey's Pillar), was barricaded and defended by about 1,000 Ottoman troops and armed volunteers, forcing the British troops to set up camp to the south. Two detachments were sent to occupy Aboukir Castle and the "Cut", Qaitbay Citadel, a castle in Alexandria between Lakes Maadia and Mareotis. The detachment's mission was to prevent Ottoman reinforcements from reaching the city. The next day, 20 March, the rest of the transports appeared off Alexandria, and an Arab messenger was sent with an offer of capitulation that was accepted by the city authorities. Sir John Thomas Duckworth appeared on 22 March, off Alexandria in his flagship HMS Royal George, with a part of his squadron, further bolstering the confidence of the British troops.
Upon the occupation of the city, Fraser and his staff first heard of the death of Muhammad Bey al-Alfi, upon whose cooperation they had founded their hopes of further success. Messengers were immediately dispatched to his successor and other local Beys, inviting them to Alexandria. The British Resident, Major Missett, with support from Duckworth, was able to convince General Mackenzie-Fraser of the importance of occupying Rosetta (Rashid) and Rahmanieh to secure supplies for Alexandria because they controlled the canal by which supplies were brought to the city via the Nile.
Manoeuvring against Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali, meanwhile, was conducting an expedition against the Beys in Upper Egypt (he later defeated them near Assiut) when he heard of the arrival of the British. In great alarm, lest the Beys should join them, especially as they were far north of his position, he immediately sent messengers to his rivals. Ali promised to comply with all the Beys' demands if they should join his campaign against the British; this proposal being agreed to, both armies marched towards Cairo on opposite sides of the river.
Battle of Rosetta
On 21 March 1807, the local Ottoman force in Rashid, led by its governor Ali Bey Al-Selaniki, confronted the advancing British troops led by General Fraser, two years after Muhammad Ali assumed power in Egypt. The British had arrived in Egypt during the struggles between the governor Muhammad Ali and the Mamluks. The British signed a treaty with Muhammad Bey Al-Alfy, the leader of the Mamluks, to ensure his support of the British campaign in exchange for a British guarantee that the Mamluks would establish control over Egypt if the British expedition were successful. However, Al-Alfy died before this expedition reached Egypt.
The plan was for the Mamluks to march to Cairo to occupy it. At the same time, the British would capture several strategically important Egyptian ports, and then march to the Delta and occupy Cairo, provided that the Mamluks assisted their forces in Egypt, especially the Millennium Front. General Fraser was in Alexandria, had received a report from the British Consul in Rashid on the state of Egypt and its forces, which made him march overland to Rashid to occupy it and establish a military base for his forces, and assigned the commander 'and is serving' this military mission.
Five hundred troops of the 31st Foot and the Chasseurs Britanniques were detached, accompanied by a section of Royal Artillery, under Major-General Patrick Wauchope and Brigadier-General the Honourable Robert Meade.
Wauchope moved in 2,500 soldiers from Alexandria to Rashid. The Governor of Rashid, Ali Bey Al-Selaniki, and his 700 soldiers, mustered to oppose the British advance. Sheikh Hassan Crere mobilised the general public to support the Egyptian forces, so he ordered the removal of the Egyptian boats from the front of the Nile, Rashid, to the eastern bank opposite the Green Island and a spindle tower in the Moutoubis county to prevent the people from getting over them and fleeing the city, so that his garrison men do not find a way to retreat, surrender or withdraw, as the Alexandria garrison did before. The garrison among the people became concealed in the homes inside the city of Rashid, as in front of them would only be skirmishing, and ordered them not to move or fire unless after the issuance of an agreed signal, so the British advanced and did not find any Egyptian troops. Hence, they believed that the city would surrender as the garrison of Alexandria did, so they safely entered the city's streets. They took a rest after walking in the sand from Alexandria to Rashid and spread in the city streets and markets to find places to take refuge and rest in. They almost did not rest until the call to prayer issued by the Selaniki order was launched from the minaret of the Sidi Zaghloul mosque, chanting: 'Allah Akbar! (God is great) For jihad!' Residents and Rashid's garrison fire broke out from the windows and rooftops, killing several British officers and soldiers; those who were not killed proceeded to retreat.
The British losses amounted to 185 dead, 282 wounded, and 120 captured at Rashid's garrison. Muhammad Ali arrived with his forces after the British withdrew to Alexandria. Muhammad Ali Pasha and General Fraser negotiated the withdrawal from Egypt and he left with the remaining British forces. 19 September, the date of the battle, became a national holiday in Beheira province.
Battle of Al Hammad
The Battle of Al-Hammad, one of the battles of the Fraser Campaign, took place on 21 April 1807, between the British forces led by General Fraser and the Ottoman forces led by Muhammad Ali Pasha near the village of Al-Hammad in the lake. The British were unable to prevent the Ottoman cavalry from outflanking them.
The Battle of Rashid was a severe defeat for the British expedition. British casualties numbered 185 dead, 282 wounded, and 120 captives at Rashid's garrison. General Fraser, the campaign's leader, sought to erase the impact of his defeat in that battle. He planned to equip another army that resumed marching towards Rashid and pledged to lead it to General Stuart. Meanwhile, Muhammad Ali Pasha arrived in Cairo on the night of 12 April 1807 (3 Safar in 1222 AH) returning from Upper Egypt. He was briefed on the defeat of the British in Rashid, and was somewhat reassured, but did not rely on what happened in that battle. Muhammad Ali Pasha expected the British might resume their march to Rashid due to its poor defences. He mobilized an army to fight and prevent them from making any progress. His men completed fortifying their defence, that began with him before his arrived, and continued working by digging trenches between Bab Al-Hadid and Bulaq to establish a defence line from Cairo from the north. In preparing the defenses, he ordered his topps to cut grooves that were in front of the trenches connected to the Nile, filled those trenches with water to obstruct the progress of the British troops, and scuttled several boats between the island of Bulaq and the beach to prevent the passage of British ships in the Nile. He oversaw the installation of cannons in Shubra, Imbaba and the island of Bulaq. Local scholars and people participated in work with them.
Muhammad Ali Pasha managed to get the money needed for the army's expenses with help from Umar Makram and the local scholars. They collected nine hundred bags of gold from the capital's residents, which was then allocated for the army's advance. The campaign was prepared and consisted of 4,000 infantry fighters and 1,500 horsemen. It was led by Tabuziglu and marched to Rashid. General Stuart's army numbered about four thousand soldiers equipped with artillery, various types of firearms and ammunition. This army moved from Alexandria on 3 April and advanced toward Rashid. When the army approached, a battalion occupied Al-Hammad, located south of Rashid between the Nile and Lake Idku. The purpose of its occupation was to encircle Rashid, preventing the city's garrison from being reinforced with supplies from the south and securing local sources of water for the British. The British also captured Akam Abi Mandour, and installed cannons near the village to bombard Rashid. Most of the army was camped southwest of Rashid. On 7 April, the British army surrounded Rashid and bombarded it with artillery.
The British commanders assumed that a continued bombardment would cause a loss of morale among the city's garrison and compel them to surrender. The British dispatched a messenger to the city, informing them that if the demand of surrender was refused, a naval and land bombardment would commence. The Egyptians' prior victory at the Battle of Rashid had convinced them of the futility of a possible British bombardment, which commenced soon after the messenger's return to the British forces. The garrison occasionally left the city during the bombardment to skirmish with the British troops encamped on land. The bombardment lasted twelve days but could not achieve any results, and the city remained Egyptian.
The British were waiting for the Mamluks to find them. In the meantime, the villagers approached British positions in Al-Hammad. General Stuart dispatched several soldiers, and the Egyptians positioned artillery on the eastern shore and began bombarding the British army's positions on the western mainland. Two hundred and fifty British soldiers succeeded in capturing the Egyptian positions and the artillery. The Egyptians were then halted for some time, allowing MacDonald to return to the mainland.
The fighting and siege continued until the arrival Tabuzoglu forces, which substantially changed the war situation. Tabuzoglu's force comprised two divisions: the first was infantry personally led by Tabuzoglu on the eastern mainland of the Nile, and the other was cavalry led by Hassan Pasha on the western mainland. The two divisions moved along the road of the two beaches when they came close to Rashid. The forces of Hassan Pasha on the western mainland were facing Al-Hammad, and the other was encamped in Barnbal on the eastern beach. The soldiers of the two divisions were able to see each other.