The Russian conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan, whose later phase from 1829 to 1859 is also known as the Murid War, was the eastern theatre of the Caucasian War of 1817–1864. During this campaign, the Russian Empire conquered the independent peoples of the Eastern Caucasus.
When Russia annexed Georgia in 1801, it needed to control the Georgian Military Road in the central Caucasus – the only practical north–south route across the mountains. Russian control of the road meant the division of the fighting in the Caucasian War into two theatres. West of the road, in the Russo-Circassian War, the tribes did not unite and the war became very complex. In the east the tribes joined in the Caucasian Imamate, a military-theocratic state which held out for thirty years. This state, established by Ghazi Muhammad in 1829–1832, came under the rule of Imam Shamil from 1834 until his surrender in 1859.
Background
Geography
The region of fighting formed a rough triangle or rectangle about 150 by 200 km.:
- The northern boundary was the east-flowing Terek River.
- The eastern boundary lay inland from the Caspian Sea where the foothills meet the Caspian plain.
- The southern boundary occasionally extended to the Samur River, but much of the south was under some degree of Russian control.
- The southwestern boundary ran along the crest of the Caucasus. This area was inaccessible and was only crossed by a few raids into Georgia in the far south.
- The western boundary was the Georgian Military Highway.
At first, most of the fighting took place within a 75 kilometer radius of Gimry (42°45′36″N 46°50′17″E / 42.760°N 46.838°E). After 1839, the center of resistance moved northwest to the forests of Chechnya.
The basic geographic distinction separates the forests of Chechnya in the northwest and the high and barren plateaus of Dagestan in the east. In Dagestan, just north of Gimry, the east-flowing Andi Koysu joins the north-flowing Avar Koysu to form the Sulak River, which flows north and then east. All three streams flow in very deep canyons. To the east, plateaus and canyons run down to the narrow coastal plain of the Caspian Sea. To the south are more plateaus, canyons and mountains. This region, called Avaria (from its major language), was partly ruled by the Avar Khanate at Khunzakh and the Kazikumukh Khanate further south. North of Gimry and the Andi Koysu is the Salatau plateau and west of it is a lower area marked by the village of Andi. North of these are the forested valleys of Chechnya, a region called Ichkeria. At about the line of the Terek, the forests give way to steppe. The Chechens used this for winter pasture until the Russians pushed them south. Between the Terek and the mountains was a 30–70 km belt of forested flat country which has now been cleared for agriculture. The western boundary is the Georgian Military Highway which follows the north-flowing upper Terek River. The northwest bend of the Terek was the main area where forest-cutting and Cossack villages were pushed southeast into the Chechen forests.
The war as a siege
Velyaminov, Yermolov's chief of staff, described the Caucasus as an enormous fortress with a 600,000-man garrison which could not be taken by storm and could only be taken by siege. The Caucasian War was, as put by Veltaminov, a decades-long siege. The many campaigns into the interior only served to wear the mountaineers down and did not result in permanent occupation until the latter years of fighting.
Fighting in the lowlands
The Russian infantry had little difficulty with flat country that had been cleared for agriculture. These areas often had rulers who could be pressured and subjects who were used to obedience.
Fighting in the forests of Chechnya
In the northwest, Chechnya extends from the high mountains down through a series of north–south valleys to the flat country. The whole region was forested to about the Terek River. The Russians could easily send a raiding party into the forest, burn a few villages and withdraw, but anything larger was nearly impossible. A large force with its baggage train would string out for a mile or more along a forest path where it would be attacked from both sides as soon as the mountaineers gathered enough men. This required skirmish lines on both sides, the so-called "column in a box". A large force could fight its way through or out, but at unacceptable cost. The only safe way to move through the forest was to cut down the trees for a musket shot on both sides of the road. Many of the trees were large beech trees that were hard to cut down and provided excellent sniper roosts. Forest cutting was a major activity during the whole period. Since lowland Chechnya is good farmland, Cossack military-agricultural villages were pushed southward as the trees were cut down. Forest fighting extended all along the north Caucasus and merged into the Circassian war further west. The Russians preferred to fight in winter when there was less cover.
Fighting in the mountains of Dagestan
In the east, Dagestan was higher and dryer with only patches of forest. Especially in the north it was a system of plateaus cut by deep gorges. Villages were usually built on crags, houses were of stone with loopholes and interlocked so that the whole village was a fort. Some were built stairstep-wise up the side of a hill so that a storming party needed ladders to move from one house to the next. These could be taken by storm at great cost or blasted open with artillery. Lack of firewood made permanent occupation difficult. The best time for the Russians was high summer when the snow had melted and there was grass for the horses.
Between two fires
Each village or Khanate was effectively independent. If it wanted to resist it had to consider how many soldiers the Russians could bring to the area. But if it submitted it could expect a counter-attack from Shamil. "Pacified" villages had varying degrees of autonomy which changed with time. Especially on the edges, many villages changed sides several times depending on which side was most threatening.
Outline
Ghazi Muhammad (1829–1832) established the Imamate, was unable to capture the Avar Khanate to the southwest and died in battle. Hamzat Bek (1832–1834) captured the Avar Khanate and was killed in revenge for his murder of the Avar ruling family. Imam Shamil (1834–1859) gained power, and in 1839 was besieged for 80 days in the rock fortress of Akhulgo. The night the place fell, he escaped with a few men. In 1840, he re-established himself in Chechnya. By 1843, he held most of Dagestan. In 1845, Vorontsov was nearly annihilated when he tried to penetrate the Chechen forest. In 1846, Shamil failed to take Kabardia to the west. In 1847–1857, things were stable. The Russians sent a number of expeditions into Dagestan, usually taking a village and withdrawing. In Chechnya, the steady process of deforestation continued. In 1858, the Russians captured the Argun Valley, cutting Chechnya in half. In 1859, resistance collapsed and Shamil surrendered and went into honorable exile at Kaluga and died in 1871 on a pilgrimage to Mecca.
The origins of Muridism
There had been a few Cossacks on the Terek River since about 1520. From 1800 to 1830, the Russians annexed Georgia south of the mountains, gained control of the Khanates along the Caspian coast and built up the Caucasian Line of forts along the northern edge of the mountains. With the end of the Turkish and Persian wars in 1829, they could turn their full attention to the mountains.
There had always been Sufi groups in the area, especially in Dagestan. Of these, the Naqshbandi order was noted for their strict adherence to religious law (Shariat) and the duty of a Murid or disciple to his teacher or Murshid. Although this was purely spiritual, under Russian pressure it became merged with the idea of Gazivat and Jihad. The ideas of religious duty, obedience to a master, strict religious law, and holy war became the basis of the Caucasian Imamate, with religion being vital for holding together many of the independent clans and villages.
Imam Ghazi Muhammad 1829–1832
All dates are old style, so add 12 days for the western calendar. For help with the numerous place-names each place will be given by its approximate distance and direction from Gimry (42°45′36″N 46°50′17″E / 42.760°N 46.838°E). Thus the Caspian Sea is 70 kilometers east and Dargo is 50 km northwest.
Ghazi Muhammad was born at Gimry around 1793 and grew up with Imam Shamil, who was a few years younger. He studied theology at Karanay (10 km NE) and Arakani (20 km SE) and began to preach at Gimry in 1827. His fame grew and he was invited to Tarki (60 km E) and Kazikumukh (70 km S). By the end of 1829, many of the people of inner Dagestan had become his followers. At first preaching shariat, his thought turned increasingly to holy war which he first preached openly at the end of 1829.
In 1830, he enacted his first military move, which was attacking his former teacher Sagheed of Arikani (20 km SE) whom opposed his preachings. He took the town, burned Sagheed's books and poured out all the wine in town. Sagheed escaped and took refuge in with Avar Khan of Kazikumukh. He took Karanai (10 km NE), Erpeli (12 km E), and then Maitli (36 km N) where he had the Kadi shot for disobedience. At a meeting at Gimry attended by religious leaders from all over Dagestan, he was proclaimed Imam. This nascent religious state clashed with the political Avar Khanate at Khunzakh (25 km SW). On 4 February, he led 3,000 men to Andi (50 km W), gained more support and marched on Khunzakh where he was defeated with a loss of 200 killed and 60 captured. In May 1830, Baron Rosen with 6,000 men marched on Gimry, dared not attack it, looted the local herds and withdrew. In September–October he went to Chechnya to consolidate relations. In May and December the Alazani River valley (200 km S) in Georgia was raided.
1831: In Feb–Mar Kazi Mulla took a position in the forest of Chumkeskent (15 km E) where he could defend Gimry and strike in any direction. Two attempts to dislodge him failed in April, as did a third attempt in May. These successes may have led them to think they could hold a fixed position, contributing to the disaster at Akhulgo 8 years later. About this time some Russian forces along with General Paskevich were withdrawn to deal with the Polish uprising. Taking advantage of this, in May 1831 Kazi Mulla captured Tarki (60 km E) under the guns of Fort Burnaya but was driven back to Chumkeskent by reinforcements. In June he besieged Fort Vnezapnaya (50 km N) and then withdrew to a forest followed by General Emmanuel and 2,500 Russians. He killed or wounded 400 of them, wounding the general, and returned to Chumkeskent. For 8 days in August he besieged Derbent (140 km SE) at the request of the people of Tabassaran. Note that Kazi Mulla fought aggressively, sending columns in all directions, while Shamil fought defensively, holding the center and waiting for the Russians to attack him. Around October the Russians attacked the Salatau plateau (20 km N) but Kazi Mulla drew them off by threatening Grozny (115 km NW). On 1 November, he sacked Kizlyar (125 km N) and took 200 prisoners, mostly women. On 01Dec Miklashevsky captured Chumkeskent taking no prisoners. The Russians began building the Lesgian Line in the far south.
1832: Things were quiet until spring. In April 1832 he went to Chechnya, threatened Vladikavkaz and besieged Nazran (180 km NW). It is said that Kazi Mulla advised the Chechens to withdraw to the forests and cultivate maize instead of wheat. Another force achieved the submission of the southern part of Chechnya. These new recruits killed some Orthodox missionaries and raided the Georgian Military Highway. The Russians responded by sending 3,000 men to the roadless Galgai country (180 km W) near the mountain crest southeast of Vladikavkaz. At one point the expedition was held up for 3 days by a defensive tower manned by exactly two men. The village of Tsori was destroyed the following day and the expedition returned to Vladikavkaz.