The Liancourt Rocks dispute, also called the Dokdo dispute or the Takeshima dispute, is a territorial dispute between South Korea, Japan, and North Korea regarding sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks, a group of small islets in the Sea of Japan. The rocks are also known in Korea as Dokdo (Korean: 독도; Hanja: 獨島) and in Japan as Takeshima (Japanese: 竹島). North Korea also formerly claimed sovereignty of the islands, but had never pursued its claim to the same extent as the others; it has, since 2024, removed its claims on the islands, as well as the rest of South Korea, following the country's abandoning of all goals of reunification and adoption of the "Two hostile states theory" policy.
The Liancourt Rocks have been administered by South Korea since 1952 by the Korea Coast Guard. This was after the United States said in the Rusk documents that the Japanese claim to the Liancourt Rocks would not be renounced in Japan's post-World-War-II peace treaty. In 1954, Japan proposed a referral to the International Court of Justice. It was rejected by South Korea, which believes the Liancourt Rocks are irrefutably South Korean territory, and the dispute should not be dealt with through diplomatic negotiations or judicial settlement between South Korea and Japan.
There are conflicting interpretations about the historical state of sovereignty over the islets. Korean claims are partly based on references to a Korean island called Usan-do in various historical records, maps and encyclopedias such as the Samguk Sagi, Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Dongguk Yeoji Seungnam (동국여지승람; 東國輿地勝覧), and Dongguk munheon bigo (동국문헌비고; 東國文獻備考). According to the Korean view, these are the Liancourt Rocks. Japanese researchers of these documents have said that the various references to Usan-do refer at different times to Jukdo, Ulleungdo, or a non-existent island between Ulleungdo and Korea. Researchers disagree on who first had administrative control over the islets due to ambiguities in early historical records and maps, owing partly to changes in the names of the islands in the area over the centuries.
History before 1800
The Three Kingdoms period
Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) recorded that in 512, General Kim Isabu conquered Usan. Samguk sagi mentions that Usan had been an independent kingdom based on Ulleungdo.
Based on the story of Usan, contemporary chroniclers believed Usando to be the same island as Ulleungdo.
Joseon and Edo period
The Taejong-Sillok (태종실록, Annals of King Taejong) recorded that "60 people were living on Usangukdo. According to a 1417 government report, there were 86 Usando inhabitants as of 1412."
The 1417 report is as follows:
An expedition was launched under Inspector Kim Inu, and from Usando, the expedition brought back local products as tribute, including bamboo, seal skins, raw ramie cloth, silk wool, and ginger. Kim brought back three Usando natives. Kim reported that there were fifteen households living on the island, summing to the figure of eighty-six inhabitants. On their way back from the island, Kim Inu's expedition went through two typhoons, barely reaching the mainland alive.
Korean scholars argue that Usando was the Liancourt Rocks. Japanese scholars argue that Usando refers to either Ulleungdo or Jukdo.
The Sejong-sillok (세종실록, "Chronicle of King Sejong", 1432) mentions Usando:
Usando and Mureungdo [a former name of Ulleungdo], in the sea due east of Uljin Prefecture, are close enough to each other to be mutually visible in clear weather at the top of the mountain.
South Korea claims that this constitutes clear evidence that Usando refers to the Liancourt Rocks, the only island visible from Ulleungdo only in clear weather. Japan claims that the latter part is to be interpreted as "come into view from mainland Korea," and that Usando is Jukdo, located two kilometers east of Ulleungdo. South Korea counters that Jukdo is only 2 kilometers apart from Ulleungdo and therefore is visible regardless of altitude or weather, as well as that the passage is written in the context of the two islands mutually, rather than in relation to the Korean mainland ("相去不遠", "相" meaning "mutually").
South Korea also refers to Ulleungdo sajuk (울릉도 사적). This work was compiled by Korean government officer Jang Han-sang (장한상; 張漢相) in 1696 after the An Yong-bok incident under orders from the Joseon kingdom.
[From Ulleungdo,] to the west can be seen the rugged mountains of Daegwallyeong; beholding the sea to the east, I noticed a faint island in the jin direction [east-south-east], not more than one-third of the size of Ulleung, and not possibly more than 300 li [approximately 100 km] away."
A later part of the work:
I climbed to the peak of the island in order to see the boundaries of Japan, but no Japanese islands could be seen at all, and I cannot, therefore, fathom the distance to the border.
This evidence is used by South Korea to demonstrate that Koreans regarded this island to the south-east as under Korean control.
The Dongguk yeoji seungnam (동국여지승람, "Augmented Geography Survey of the Eastern Nation (Korea)", 1481) defining Korea's territory, said that "Usando and Ulleungdo are under the jurisdiction of Uljin-hyeon of Gangwon-do as an administrative unit." It also mentions that the tree and the beach could be clearly seen on a fine day. The 1531 revision of this book includes the Paldo chongdo ("Map of the Eight Provinces"), showing two separate islands of Usan-do and Ulleung-do in the middle of the Sea of Japan. Usando is drawn to the west of Ulleungdo, but there is no island to the west of Ulleungdo.
From the early fifteenth century to the aftermath of the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the Joseon court was unable and unwilling to maintain a civilian population on either Ulleungdo or Usando. According to the Taejong sillok ("Annals of King Taejong"), the mainland government forcibly evacuated the islands during Taejong's reign, in accordance with the "vacant island policy". Thus, the islets were only occasionally populated by permanent settlers up to the seventeenth century; a permanent population existed only on Ulleungdo. Following the war, the islands were completely vacated.
1677 report
Takeshima tōkai yuraiki bassho hikae, written by Ōya Kyuemon, records that in 1618 the Tokugawa shogunate granted fishing rights to the Ōya and Murakawa families of Yonago, and in 1661 bestowed the feudal tenure of "Takeshima", then referred to as Ulleungdo. On the way to Ulleungdo, Japanese fishermen sometimes used the islands Matsushima (松島) as an intermediate port of call. In 1677, a retainer by the name of Saito Hessen compiled the Onshu shicho goki ("Records on Observations in Oki Province"), a set of records based upon observations he had made under orders from the daimyō of Izumo (Unshū).
Oki is in the middle of the North Sea and is called Okinoshima. Going further from there for two days and one night in a northwesterly direction, one reaches Matsushima. Also there is Takeshima at another day's travel.
These two islands are uninhabited and viewing Goryeo from there is like viewing Oki from Unshū.
As this report was compiled from a Japanese geographical perspective, Japanese scholars argue that Matsushima (the closer island) refers to the Liancourt Rocks and Takeshima (the farther island) refers to Ulleungdo. Korean scholars argue that the grants were given to permit them to travel abroad, thus the fishing area was foreign territory. These grants led to a conflict with native settlers in Ulleungdo and were later revoked by the Kampaku of Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate in 1696.
1695 inquiry into Takeshima
In 1695 the Shogunate inquired of the Tottori clan (Tottori Prefecture today) if Takeshima (Ulleungdo) and Matsushima (Liancourt Rocks) were part of either Inaba or Hōki Province, where the Oya and Murakawa of Yonago resided.
The Shogunate inquired:
The Tottori replied:
1696 Murakami document
Korean historical sources state that the administrator of Tokugawa shogunate reaffirmed in January 1696 that Ulleungdo and Dokdo belonged to Korea, quoting An Yong-bok's testimony. The dispute between Chosun Korea and Tokugawa Japan about the ownership of Ulleung-do ignited when Korean fishermen clashed with Japanese fishermen in Ulleungdo waters in 1692. The following year, An Yong-Bok and Park Eo-dun, representing Korean fishing communities, are variously said to have visited, drifted, or even been abducted by Japanese fishermen, arriving at Oki island in 1693. Taking this occasion, An discussed territorial title matters with a Japanese governmental official, reminding him that Ulleungdo and Jasando (자산도, 子山島 sic; a scribal corruption of Usan-do 于山島/亐山島) are Korean territory. As a result, the bakufu issued prohibitions banning Japanese fishermen from travelling to Ulleng-do. This is called the First An Yong-bok incident.
An, on being released from a two-year exile on charges of traveling to a foreign country without permission, made a second trip to Japan together with a group of Koreans from Dongnae and other maritime regions in 1696 with documents and a map to reconfirm his initial claim during the first confrontation, which had come under suspicion by the Korean government due to the Tsushima clan's delaying Edo's orders to notify the Korean government of Japan's prohibition to travel to Ulleungdo. Aware of the severe punishment which the Edo government would certainly impose on the Tsushima lord, Tsushima expedited Edo's decision to nullify "Permission to cross to Takeshima (Ulleung-do)" to the Korean government, which Edo had been withholding until An's visit. Although Japan did not mention Matsushima (Liancourt Rocks) on the prohibition papers, no Japanese could legitimately travel to either Takeshima or Matsushima until the end of the bakufu period. This document from An's second trip relays An's words that Ulleungdo, geographically subordinate to Gangwon province, was administered by Dongnae-bu. The document records the distance between Takeshima (Ulleungdo) and Matsushima (Liancourt Rocks) as 50 ri, and also states, in a rough copy of An's map of Korea, that the two islets belonged to Korea's Gangwon province. In the Annals of King Sukjong, the official governmental chronicle, An is reported to have stated that Jasan-do 子山島(sic) was what the Japanese called Matsu-shima 松島 at that time.
In February 1697, the Korean government decided to reject Tsushima clan's request to amend a previous letter that mentioned Korea's Ulleungdo, and that An Yong-Bok's visit to Japan to raise a legal case did not require a written response from Korea since the Royal Court had no foreknowledge. These facts were to be conveyed to the Tsushima envoy's house informally: "An was an unenlightened subject who got thrown about by a storm. If he executed something, it had not been known by the Joseon Royal Court."
In March 1699, the Korean government made a formal communication in writing that An was punished for submitting a legal case against the governor of Hokishu to the Edo government without authorisation from the Korean government."
Although the Border Defense Command demanded capital punishment, King Sukjong commuted An's sentence to exile in positive consideration of his successful negotiations with the Edo government that resulted in the "prohibition of all Japanese travelling to Korea for fishing, harvesting, and lumbering for eternity".
1785 Map of Three Adjoining Countries
A Japanese scholar of practical science, Hayashi Shihei, published "Map of Three Adjoining Countries" (三國接壤地圖) in his work "Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu" in 1785, which showed each country in distinct colours; Joseon (old name of Korea) in yellow, Japan in green. In the map, Ulleungdo and an island to its northeast were marked "As Korean territories (朝鮮ノ持ニ)". The name of the larger island was given as "竹嶋", the current name of Ulleungdo then in Japan. According to Korean scholars, the islands to the northeast of Ulleungdo represent the Liancourt Rocks, and thus proves Liancourt belonged to Korea at the time. According to Japanese scholars, neither of these conclusions are necessary or even probable, as the Liancourt Rocks are located southeast of Ulleungdo.
History from 1800 to 1945
1808 Usando, Ulleungdo, and Matsushima claimed to be the same island
Man'gi yoram (만기요람, "Handbook of State Affairs") from 1808 quotes the earlier Yeojiji ("Gazette", 1656) that Ulleungdo and Usando all belonged to Usan'guk, and Usando was equivalent to what the Japanese then called Matsushima. However, there is no such description in the original Yeojiji. Instead, Dongguk yeojiji says "... one theory has it that Usan-do and Ulleung-do are the same island ..." as described in Donggug Yeoji Seunglam (1481).
19th-century maps
Usando is displayed on the cartographs made by Chong Sang-gi (1678–1752); Haejwa Jeondo (1822), and Dongguk Jeondo (by Kim Tae-gon, 1821–1846). Japanese believe it to be Jukdo, noting the distance, shape, size, and direction., while Koreans believe it to be Liancourt and they said that Usando was a former name of Liancourt.
In 2011, Usando is found on the Kim Jeong-ho's Daedong Yeojido.
A US-made map of 1897 produced by an encyclopedia publisher based in New York shows Liancourt Rocks as part of Japan.
1877 Daijō-kan order to exclude Takeshima (Ulleungdo) and another island from Japanese National Land Registry
On March 20, 1877, the Japanese Supreme Council Daijō-kan issued an order stating that Ulleungdo (then called "Takeshima 竹島", now called Matsushima 松島 by Japan) and another island (外一島) are not under Japanese rule.
Korea states that "another island" (外一島) besides Ulleungdo refers to Liancourt Rocks and considers this order as an evidence that Liancourt Rocks was under the control of Korea. The Japanese government has not made any comment on this point whereas some Japanese consider that "another island" (外一島) does not refer to Liancourt Rocks.