Hurricane Floyd was a powerful and destructive tropical cyclone which struck the Bahamas and the East Coast of the United States. It was the sixth named storm, fourth hurricane, and third major hurricane in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. Floyd triggered the fourth largest evacuation in US history (behind Hurricane Irma, Hurricane Gustav, and Hurricane Rita) when 2.6 million coastal residents of five states were ordered from their homes as it approached. The hurricane formed off the coast of Africa and lasted from September 7 to 19, becoming extratropical after September 17, and peaked in strength as a very strong Category 4 hurricane. It was among the largest Atlantic hurricanes of its strength ever recorded, in terms of gale-force diameter.
Floyd was once forecast to strike Florida, but turned away. Instead, Floyd struck the Bahamas at peak strength, causing heavy damage. It then moved parallel to the East Coast of the United States, causing massive evacuations and costly preparations from Florida through the Mid-Atlantic states. The storm weakened significantly, however, before striking the Cape Fear region, North Carolina as a very strong Category 2 hurricane, and caused further damage as it traveled up the Mid-Atlantic region and into New England.
The hurricane produced torrential rainfall in Eastern North Carolina, adding more rain to an area already hit by Hurricane Dennis just weeks earlier. The rains caused widespread flooding over a period of several weeks; nearly every river basin in the eastern part of the state exceeded 500-year flood levels. In total, Floyd was responsible for 85 fatalities and $6.5 billion (1999 USD) in damage. Due to the destruction, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Floyd and replaced it with Franklin.
Meteorological history
Floyd originated from a tropical wave that exited the west coast of Africa on September 2. The wave moved generally westward, presenting a general curvature in its convection, or thunderstorms, but little organization at first. By September 5, a center of circulation was evident within the convective system. Over the next day, the thunderstorms increased in intensity as they organized into a curved band. Aided by favorable outflow, the system organized further into Tropical Depression Eight late on September 7, located about 1,000 mi (1,600 km) east of the Lesser Antilles. With a strong ridge of high pressure to its north, the nascent tropical depression moved to the west-northwest, where environmental conditions favored continued strengthening, including progressively warmer water temperatures. On issuing its first advisory, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) anticipated that the depression would intensify into a hurricane within three days, a forecast that proved accurate. On its second advisory, NHC forecaster Lixion Avila stated that the depression had "all the ingredients...that we know of...to become a major hurricane eventually."
Early on September 8, the depression became sufficiently well-organized for the NHC to upgrade it to Tropical Storm Floyd. The storm had a large circulation, but Floyd initially lacked a well-defined inner core, which resulted in only slow strengthening. The first Hurricane Hunters mission occurred on September 9, which observed the developing storm. On September 10, Floyd intensified into a hurricane about 230 mi (370 km) east-northeast of the Lesser Antilles. Around that time, the track shifted more to the northwest, steered by a tropical upper tropospheric trough north of Puerto Rico. An eye developed in the center of the hurricane, signaling strengthening. On September 11, Hurricane Floyd moved through the upper-level trough, which, in conjunction with an anticyclone over the eastern Caribbean, disrupted the outflow and caused the winds to weaken briefly. The hurricane re-intensified on September 12 as its track shifted more to the west, steered by a ridge to the north. That day, the NHC upgraded Floyd to a major hurricane, or a Category 3 on the Saffir-Simpson scale.
Over a 24-hour period from September 12–13, Hurricane Floyd rapidly intensified, aided by warm waters east of The Bahamas. During that time, the maximum sustained winds increased from 110 to 155 mph (177 to 249 km/h), making Floyd a strong Category 4 hurricane. This was based a 90% reduction of an observation by the Hurricane Hunters, which recorded flight-level winds of 171 mph (276 km/h). Around the same time, the pressure dropped to 921 mb (921 hPa; 27.2 inHg). Around this time, tropical cyclone forecast models suggested an eventual landfall in the Southeastern United States from Palm Beach, Florida to South Carolina.
At its peak, tropical storm-force winds spanned a diameter of 580 mi (930 km), making Floyd one of the largest Atlantic hurricanes of its intensity ever recorded. For about 12 hours, Hurricane Floyd remained just below Category 5 status while crossing The Bahamas. Late on September 13, the eye of the hurricane passed just north of San Salvador and Cat Islands. On the next day, the hurricane made landfalls on Eleuthera and Abaco islands. During this time, Floyd underwent an eyewall replacement cycle, in which an outer eyewall developed, causing the original eye to dissipate near Eleuthera. This caused a temporary drop in sustained winds to Category 3 status, only for Floyd to restrengthen briefly to a Category 4 on September 15.
While approaching the southeastern United States, a strong mid- to upper-level trough eroded the western portion of the high-pressure ridge, which had been steering Floyd for several days. The break in the ridge caused Floyd to turn to the northwest. After the hurricane completed its eyewall replacement cycle, Floyd had a large 57 mi (93 km) eye. The large storm gradually weakened after exiting The Bahamas, due to drier air and increasing wind shear. On September 15, Floyd paralleled the east coast of Florida about 110 mi (170 km) offshore, as it accelerated to the north and north-northeast. At around 06:30 UTC on September 16, Hurricane Floyd made landfall in Cape Fear, North Carolina with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h), a Category 2. The eyewall had largely dissipated by that time. Continuing northeastward along a cold front, Floyd moved through eastern North Carolina and southeastern Virginia, weakening to tropical storm status by late on September 16. The storm gradually lost its tropical characteristics as it quickly moved through the Delmarva Peninsula, eastern New Jersey, Long Island, and New England. Late on September 17, Floyd transitioned into an extratropical cyclone near the coast of southern Maine. The storm continued to the northeast, passing through New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland on September 18. On the following day, a larger extratropical storm over the North Atlantic Ocean absorbed what was once Hurricane Floyd.
Preparations
When Floyd posed a threat to the Lesser Antilles, a tropical storm watch was issued for Antigua and Barbuda, Anguilla, Saint Martin, and Saint Barthelemy.
On September 12, a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch was issued for the Turks and Caicos Islands and the southeast Bahamas. A day later, the Bahamas issued a hurricane warning for the central and northwestern parts of the archipelago. Nassau International Airport shut down during the hurricane. Hotels provided tourists riding out the storm with candles.
While Floyd was near peak intensity on September 13, the NHC noted the differing forecasts by computer models, which anticipated the hurricane could hit anywhere from Palm Beach, Florida to South Carolina. That day, the agency issued a hurricane warning from Florida City, Florida to Brunswick, Georgia. Ultimately, nearly all of the East Coast of the United States from Florida City, Florida, to Plymouth, Massachusetts, was under a hurricane warning. The last time such widespread hurricane warnings occurred was during Hurricane Donna in 1960. Due to the hurricane's threat, around 2.6 million people evacuated from Florida to the Carolinas, which was the largest peacetime evacuation in U.S. history at the time.
Florida governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency in anticipation of Floyd's approach. More than 1 million people in the state were ordered to evacuate, including 272,000 in Miami-Dade County. Navy ships and military aircraft flew away from the state, and Kennedy Space Center reduced its crew. Walt Disney World closed for the first time in its history due to the storm. SeaWorld was also closed. Flights were canceled across southern Florida. A state of emergency was also declared in Georgia. A hurricane warning was issued for the North Carolina coastline 27 hours prior to landfall. Officials opened at least 40 emergency shelters in North Carolina.
In Baltimore, the Baltimore Orioles postponed a baseball game. Pennsylvania governor Tom Ridge declared a state of emergency for eastern Pennsylvania. A state of emergency was declared in Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey, prompting schools statewide to be shut down on September 16. In Delaware, about 300 people evacuated. Across New York, schools were closed and flights were cancelled. This included the first school closures for New York City since the Blizzard of 1996. The National Weather Service issued flood watches as far north as Maine.
In Atlantic Canada, the Canadian Hurricane Centre issued 14 warnings related to Floyd, generating significant media interest. About 100 Sable Offshore Energy Project employees were evacuated to the mainland. In southwestern Nova Scotia, 66 schools were closed, and provincial ferry service with Bar Harbor, Maine was canceled.
Impact
With a death toll of 85, Hurricane Floyd was the deadliest United States hurricane since Hurricane Agnes in 1972. The storm was the third-costliest hurricane in the nation's history at the time, with monetary damage estimated at $6.5 billion (1999 USD); it ranked the 19th costliest as of 2017. Most of the deaths and damage were from inland, freshwater flooding in eastern North Carolina.
Caribbean
Around when Floyd first became a hurricane, its outer bands moved over the Lesser Antilles.
While Floyd moved through the Bahamas, a station in Nassau recorded wind gusts of 78 mph (126 km/h), along with sustained winds of 64 mph (102 km/h). Grand Bahama Island recorded a tide of 5.27 ft (1.61 m) above mean sea level. Floyd also dropped heavy rainfall across the Bahamas, peaking at 9.32 in (237 mm) in Little Harbour in the Abacos. The hurricane also produced waves estimated up to 50 ft (15 m) in height. A 20 ft (6.10 m) storm surge inundated many islands with over five ft (1.5 m) of water throughout. The wind and waves toppled power and communication lines, severely disrupting electricity and telephone services for days. Damage was greatest at Abaco Island, Cat Island, San Salvador Island, and Eleuthera Island, where Floyd uprooted trees and destroyed a significant number of houses. Numerous restaurants, hotels, shops, and homes were devastated, severely limiting in the recovery period tourism on which many rely for economic well-being. Damaged water systems left tens of thousands across the archipelago without water, electricity, or food. One person drowned in Freeport. A few injuries were reported.
Southeastern United States
For several days, Floyd paralleled the east coast of Florida, producing about $50 million in damage, mostly in Volusia county. There, high winds and falling trees damaged 337 homes. The highest recorded wind gust in the state was 69 mph (111 km/h) in Daytona Beach. Beach erosion affected much of the state's Atlantic coast. The most significant effects were in Brevard and Volusia counties, where waves damaged houses and piers. Rainfall in the state reached 3.2 in (81 mm) in Sanford. When Floyd passed by the area, Kennedy Space Center only reported light winds with minor water intrusion. Overall damage was minor and was repaired easily.
Farther north in Georgia, Floyd produced wind gusts of 53 mph (85 km/h) at Savannah International Airport. The winds knocked down a few trees and power lines near the coast, but statewide damage was minimal. In Savannah, the hurricane produced tides 3.3 ft (1.0 m) above normal. Rainfall was light in the state, reaching 0.85 in (22 mm) in Newington.
Tropical storm force winds affected the entirety of the South Carolina coastline, with statewide damage estimated at $17 million. Sustained winds reached 54 mph (87 km/h) at the Charleston National Weather Service Office, which also recorded wind gusts of 85 mph (137 km/h). The winds destroyed a few roofs and knocked down thousands of trees, leaving more than 200,000 people without electricity. The hurricane produced above normal tides along the coast, reaching 10.1 ft (3.1 m) above normal in Charleston Harbor. The waves caused minor to moderate beach erosion. At Myrtle Beach International Airport, Hurricane Floyd dropped 16.06 in (408 mm) of rainfall, the highest recorded in the state.