Beginning in 2022, France began to withdraw military troops from several West African nations following decades of military presence and interventions. Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Chad unilaterally terminated their defense agreements, unlike the Central African Republic, Senegal, and the Ivory Coast, where French forces withdrew without a formal cancellation of the agreements. The withdrawal coincided with increasing opposition to French military intervention in the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel, as well as numerous military coups either with French support or with French participation, particularly in the "Coup Belt".
The withdrawal marked a fundamental shift in Franco-African relations, with several media outlets and geopolitical analysts stating that it represented the decline of Françafrique— France's sphere of military, economic, and geopolitical influence over its former colonies. The withdrawals also represented the shift of African interests away from security and development treaties with the western world, towards different parties such as China, India, the Gulf States, and especially Russia.
The defense agreements between France and French-speaking African countries established cooperation in defense and security matters and were often accompanied by secret clauses, allowing France to intervene militarily. Such interventions were often used to support, dispose, or install governments with French interests; to fight jihadism—particularly in the Sahel—or to put an end to civil wars. The departure of French troops from much of the African continent has marred "Françafrique", if not marking its end.
Background
Following the independence of French African colonies beginning in 1959, France continued to maintain a sphere of influence over the new countries, known as Françafrique, which was critical to then President Charles de Gaulle's vision of France as a global power (or grandeur in French) and as a bulwark to British and American influence in a post-colonial world. Operating through both formal and informal channels, this system was characterized by several key elements: the "African cell" of presidential advisors who shaped African policy, the franc zone currency union, extensive cooperation accords, and stability-focused and interventionist military policies involving permanent settlement of French troops in Francophone nations.
After this decolonisation, France established formal defence agreements with many francophone countries in sub-Saharan Africa. These arrangements allowed France to establish itself as a guarantor of stability in the region. France adopted an interventionist policy in Africa, resulting in on average one military intervention per year from 1960 to the mid-1990s. They involved countries such as Benin (Operation Verdier in 1991), Central African Republic (Operation Barracuda in 1979 and Operation Almandin in 1996), Chad (Opération Bison in 1968–72, Opération Tacaud in 1978, Operation Manta in 1983 and Opération Épervier in 1986), Comoros (Operation Oside in 1989 and Operation Azalee in 1995), Democratic Republic of Congo (Operation Léopard in 1978 and Operation Baumier in 1991 when it was Zaire, and Operation Artemis in 2003), Djibouti (Operation Godoria in 1991), Gabon (1964 and Operation Requin in 1990), Ivory Coast (Opération Licorne in 2002), Mauritania (Opération Lamantin in 1977), Republic of Congo (Opération Pélican in 1997), Rwanda (Operation Noroît in 1990–93, Operation Amaryllis in 1994 and Opération Turquoise in 1994), Togo (1986), Senegal (to prevent a coup in 1962) and Sierra Leone (Operation Simbleau in 1992). France often intervened to protect French nationals, to put down rebellions or prevent coups, and to restore order, often to the support of particular African leaders.
In 2012, militant groups affiliated with Al-Qaeda attempted to seize parts of Mali with the intent to take control of other areas within the region. In response, France increased its presence in order to provide military assistance to Sahelian countries. This was defined by Operation Serval under the leadership of former president Francois Hollande, in order to prevent Islamist militants from seizing Bamako, Mali. The success of this operation was short-lived as militant groups began to appear in neighbouring nations, including Chad and Burkina Faso. By 2014, the French military sent over 5,000 troops to the Sahel under Operation Barkhane as means to support governments throughout the region in their struggle against Islamist groups.
Withdrawal
In 2024, Niger, Burkina Faso, and Mali announced their withdrawal from the ECOWAS. The countries had earlier been suspended from ECOWAS due to military takeovers of their respective governments. On 6 July 2024, the military leaders of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso at a summit in Niamey, Niger, signed a confederation treaty to create an alternative military alliance. The signing marked the conclusion of the first joint summit of the Alliance of Sahel States.
In November 2024, the special politician for French operations in Africa, Jean-Marie Bockel, submitted a report to President Emmanuel Macron on the reconfiguration of France's African military presence, advocating a "renewed" and "rebuilt" partnership. France plans to reduce the pre-positioned forces it has on its military bases. The new terms of France's military presence in Africa intended for a significant reduction to maintain only a permanent liaison detachment, while adapting the offer of military cooperation to the needs expressed by African countries. The strategy emphasized significant troop reductions across all bases, except in Djibouti and Gabon.
On 6 January 2025, French President Emmanuel Macron said that France was right to intervene militarily in the African Sahel against Islamist militants, and said he was still waiting for the Sahel states to "thank" France while denying that the French military had been forced to leave the region.
On January 23, 2025, after the withdrawal of the French army from several African countries, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that it will invest in fewer military bases and more schools in the future in the region. This approach to the African continent will be characterized by initiatives focusing in particular on climate, education and health.
Mali
Operation Serval (French: Opération Serval) was a military campaign undertaken with the primary objective of removing Islamic extremists from the northern region of Mali, where they had initiated an offensive towards the central areas of the country. The operation concluded on 15 July 2014, and was succeeded by Operation Barkhane, which was launched on 1 August 2014 to expand the French military's operations over a vast area of the Sahel region and continue combatting Islamist insurgents in the Sahel region. In a survey conducted by the Friedrich Ebert Foundation, fewer than fifty percent of the individuals surveyed were content with the presence of the French military in the country, especially from those surveyed in southern Mali.
Operation Barkhane is considered less successful than its predecessor, mainly because of the lack of military success, and partially because of the complications in withdrawing French soldiers. As a result of the 2021 Malian coup d'état, French President Emmanuel Macron announced the end of the operation and his intentions to remove troops incrementally. The killing of several civilians in the village of Bounti in 2022, which was carried out by French fighter-jets, sparked one of Mali's most significant anti-France protests against French military intervention and Operation Barkhane.
On 18 March 2022, the military government of Mali asked France to withdraw its troops "without delay". President Macron, however, responded that about 5,000 French troops would leave Mali in an "orderly fashion" over the next four to six months, in order to provide protection for the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) and forces of other nations stationed in Mali. France completed its military withdrawal from Mali on 15 August 2022, marking the end of its nearly decade-long military intervention.
Burkina Faso
A 2018 military accord between France and Burkina Faso had enabled the deployment of approximately 400 French special forces soldiers to conduct counter-terrorism operations within the country. This arrangement was part of broader French military involvement in the Sahel region, aimed at combating armed groups affiliated with al-Qaeda and the Islamic State who had gained control over substantial territories. Burkina Faso hosted important military installations for both France and the United States, along with a German logistics base.
Burkina Faso experienced a military coup in September 2022, leading to the establishment of a transitional government under President Ibrahim Traoré. This new administration emphasized national sovereignty and self-reliance in security matters, with government spokesman Rimtalba Jean Emmanuel Ouedraogo stating that Burkinabe authorities sought to become the primary actors in reclaiming their territory from armed groups. Following the coup, multiple demonstrations occurred calling for the withdrawal of both French troops and diplomatic presence, culminating in an attack on the French cultural center in Ouagadougou in October 2022.
In January 2023, Burkina Faso's military government formally announced the termination of its military agreement with France. This decision required the withdrawal of approximately 400 French special forces personnel from the country within a one-month period. Burkina Faso's Prime Minister Apollinaire J. Kyélem de Tambèla explicitly endorsed a reorientation away from France and western powers towards establishing military ties with Russian military contractors, following discussions with Russian diplomats and a diplomatic visit to Moscow in December 2022. French President Emmanuel Macron initially requested clarification regarding the decision, while expressing concern about Russia's growing influence in the region, which he characterized as "predatory."
February 2023 marked the official conclusion of French military operations in Burkina Faso, marked by a formal flag-lowering ceremony at a military camp near Ouagadougou, attended by senior officers from both nations.
Niger
In the wake of the 2023 coup d'état and the following crisis, thousands of Nigeriens stormed the French embassy. Its walls and gates were set ablaze and damaged after they were topped with Russian flags. The demonstrators also called for an immediate intervention by the Wagner Group. On 25 August, the junta ordered French ambassador Sylvain Itté to leave the country within 48 hours.
In August 2023, Niger denounced “cooperation agreements in the field of security and defense” with France by a decree announcing the end of the various military and defense agreements with France. Shortly afterwards, French president Emmanuel Macron announced it plans to end its military presence in Niger, with Macron stating "we are not there to deal with internal politics and be hostages of putschists." France does not recognize de facto leadership of Niger, maintaining that Mohamed Bazoum is the legitimate leader.
In December 2023, it was announced that France intended to close its embassy in Niamey due to it being unable to carry out diplomatic tasks due to restrictions imposed by the ruling junta.
Central African Republic
France had previously deployed over 1,000 troops to the Central African Republic in 2013 under Operation Sangaris, which lasted until 2016.
In mid-2021, Paris suspended military cooperation with Bangui over an alleged Russian-led anti-French campaign. On 15 December 2022, France completed its military withdrawal as the last 47 soldiers of the logistical mission (MISLOG-B) departed from Bangui M'Poko International Airport, ending direct French military presence amid deteriorating bilateral relations and the deployment of the Wagner Group.
Chad
The Chadian administration expressed dissatisfaction with limited financial support from France and the European Union for electoral processes following the country's political transition following Idriss Déby's death. Additionally, disagreements emerged regarding Chad's support of the Rapid Support Forces in the Sudanese civil war beginning in April 2023.
On 28 November 2024, Chad announced it would end a defense and security cooperation agreement with France, dating from 1966, and revised in 2019. Per a government statement, Chad intended to maintain "constructive relations with France in other areas of common interest, for the benefit of both peoples". On November 29, France acknowledged the denunciation of the defense and security cooperation agreements with Chad. On December 5, Chad set up a commission responsible for implementing the denunciation of the military cooperation agreements between France and Chad. France, for its part, has announced that it has entered into discussions on the termination of the military and security cooperation contract with Chad. On December 6, demonstrations in support of the termination of military cooperation agreements took place in Chad.