The Aleutian Islands campaign (Japanese: アリューシャン方面の戦い, romanized: Aryūshan hōmen no tatakai) was a military campaign fought between 3 June 1942 and 15 August 1943 on and around the Aleutian Islands, part of the US Territory of Alaska, in the American Theater of World War II during the Pacific War. It was the only military campaign of World War II fought on North American soil.
The islands' strategic value was their ability to control Pacific transportation routes. U.S. General Billy Mitchell told the U.S. Congress in 1935, "I believe that in the future, whoever holds Alaska will hold the world. I think it is the most important strategic place in the world." The Japanese reasoned that their control of the Aleutians would prevent a possible joining of forces by the Americans and the Soviets and future attack on the Japanese mainland via the Kuril Islands. Similarly, the U.S. feared that the islands could be used as bases from which to launch air raids on West Coast cities such as Anchorage, Seattle, San Francisco, or Los Angeles.
Following two aircraft carrier-based attacks on the American naval base at Dutch Harbor, the Imperial Japanese Navy occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska in June 1942. The remoteness of the islands and the challenges of weather and terrain delayed a larger American-Canadian force sent to eject them for nearly a year. A battle to reclaim Attu was launched on 11 May 1943 and completed after a final Japanese banzai charge on 29 May. On 15 August 1943 an invasion force landed on Kiska in the wake of a sustained three-week barrage, only to discover that the Japanese had withdrawn from the island on 29 July. The campaign is known as the "Forgotten Battle" because it has been overshadowed by other events in the war.
Many military historians believe that the Japanese invasion of the Aleutians was a diversionary or feint attack during the Battle of Midway that was meant to draw out the U.S. Pacific Fleet from Midway Atoll, as it was launched simultaneously under the same commander, Isoroku Yamamoto. Some historians have argued against that interpretation and believe that the Japanese invaded the Aleutians to protect their northern flank and did not intend it as a diversion.
Japanese attack
Before the Empire of Japan entered World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy had gathered extensive information about the Aleutians but had no up-to-date information regarding military developments on the islands. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto provided the Japanese Northern Area Fleet with a force of two non-fleet aircraft carriers, five cruisers, twelve destroyers, six submarines, and four troop transports, along with supporting auxiliary ships. With that force, Hosogaya was to launch an air attack against Dutch Harbor then follow with an amphibious attack upon Adak Island, 480 miles (770 km) to the west. Hosogaya was instructed to destroy whatever American forces and facilities were found on Adak, but the Japanese did not know the island was undefended. Hosogaya's troops were to return to their ships and become a reserve for two additional landings: the first on Kiska, 240 miles (390 km) west of Adak, the other on the Aleutians' westernmost island, Attu, 180 miles (290 km) west from Kiska.
Because the Office of Naval Intelligence had broken the Japanese naval codes, Admiral Chester Nimitz learned by May 1942 of Yamamoto's plans, including the Aleutian invasion, the strength of both Yamamoto's and Hosogaya's fleets, and Hosogaya's plan to attack the Aleutians on 1 June or shortly thereafter.
As of 1 June, the U.S. military strength in Alaska stood at 45,000 men, with about 13,000 at Cold Bay (Fort Randall) on the tip of the Alaska Peninsula and at two Aleutian bases: Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island, 200 miles (320 km) west of Cold Bay, and the recently built Fort Glenn Army Air Base on the island of Umnak 70 miles (110 km) west of Dutch Harbor. Army strength, less air force personnel, at those three bases totaled no more than 2,300, composed mainly of infantry, field and anti-aircraft artillery troops, and a large construction engineer contingent, which was used in the construction of bases. The Army Air Force's Eleventh Air Force consisted of 10 B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers and 34 B-18 Bolo medium bombers at Elmendorf Airfield, and 95 P-40 Warhawk fighters divided between Fort Randall and Fort Glenn. The forward headquarters was set up at Fort Geely, while the rear units were stationed at Fort Richardson. The naval commander was Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald, commanding Task Force 8 afloat, who as Commander North Pacific Force (ComNorPac) reported to Nimitz in Hawaii. Task Force 8 consisted of five cruisers, thirteen destroyers, three tankers, six submarines, as well as naval aviation elements of Fleet Air Wing Four.
When the first signs of a possible Japanese attack on the Aleutians were known, the Eleventh Air Force was ordered to send out reconnaissance aircraft to locate the Japanese fleet reported heading toward Dutch Harbor and attack it with bombers, concentrating on sinking Hosogaya's two aircraft carriers. Once the enemy planes were removed, Naval Task Force 8 would engage the enemy fleet and destroy it. On the afternoon of 2 June, a naval patrol plane spotted the approaching Japanese fleet, reporting its location as 800 nautical miles (1,500 km; 920 mi) southwest of Dutch Harbor. Eleventh Air Force was placed on full alert. Shortly thereafter bad weather set in, and no further sightings of the fleet were made that day.
Before the attack on Dutch Harbor, the Army's 4th Infantry Regiment, under command of Colonel Percy E. LeStourgeon, was established at Fort Richardson. LeStourgeon had previously designed a layout of base facilities—such as isolation of weapons and munitions depots—to protect against enemy attack.
Attack on Dutch Harbor
According to Japanese intelligence, the nearest field for land-based American aircraft was at Fort Morrow Army Airfield on Kodiak, more than 600 miles (970 km) away, and Dutch Harbor was a sitting duck for the strong Japanese fleet, carrying out a coordinated operation with a fleet that was to capture Midway Island.
Making use of weather cover, the Japanese made a two-day aerial bombing of continental North America for the first time in history. The striking force was composed of Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bombers from the carriers Jun'yō and Ryūjō. However, only half of the striking force reached their objective. The rest either became lost in the fog and darkness and crashed into the sea or returned to their carriers. Seventeen Japanese planes found the naval base, the first arriving at 05:45. As the Japanese pilots looked for targets to engage, they came under intense anti-aircraft fire and soon found themselves confronted by Eleventh Air Force fighters sent from Fort Glenn. Startled by the American response, the Japanese quickly released their bombs, made a cursory strafing run, and left to return to their carriers. As a result, they did little damage to the base.
On 4 June the Japanese returned to Dutch Harbor. This time, the Japanese pilots were better organized and prepared. When the attack ended that afternoon, Dutch Harbor oil storage tanks were burning, the hospital was partly demolished, and a beached barracks ship was damaged. Although American pilots eventually located the Japanese carriers, attempts to sink the ships failed because bad weather set in that caused the U.S. pilots to lose all contact with the Japanese fleet. However, the weather caused the Japanese to cancel plans to invade Adak with 1,200 men.
Invasion of Kiska and Attu
The Japanese invasions and occupations of Kiska on 6 June and Attu on 7 June shocked the American public, as the continental United States was invaded for the first time in 130 years since 1815 (during the War of 1812). The invading forces initially met little resistance from the local Unangax, also known as Aleuts. Though the U.S. Navy had offered to evacuate Attu in May 1942, the Attuan Unangax chief declined. Little changed for the Unangax under Japanese occupation until September 1942 when Japan's Aleutian strategy shifted. It was at this point that the Unangax were taken to Hokkaido, Japan, and placed in an internment camp.
Through the rest of the summer of 1942, aerial raids by either side could be flown only when the weather permitted. Japan installed a radar warning system on the islands and continued to resupply them, despite heavy disruptions against its shipping by U.S. bombers and submarines. The establishment of American air bases in Umnak and Cold Bay would add to the threat faced by the Japanese.
Evacuation of the Unangax
The Unangax (Aleuts), the indigenous people of the Aleutian and Pribilof islands, were evacuated following the attacks on Dutch Harbor. Although they were U.S citizens, their legal status was often treated as that of "wards" of the federal government, a relationship that allowed the federal government to exercise significant control over their autonomy.
The evacuation process was hasty and chaotic. Unangax residents were often given less than 24 hours' notice, allowed one suitcase or minimal personal items. Over 880 Unangax were embarked on military transport ships. The invasion of Attu and imprisonment of the local Unangax became the justification for the United States' policy of forcible evacuation of the Unangax in the Aleutian Islands. Unangan civilians were placed in internment camps in the Alaska Panhandle.
On 12 June USS Gillis and Hulbert, stationed off Atka, received orders to remove the villagers and burn the village to prevent the buildings being used by the Japanese, should they take the island. Most of the natives were not at the village, as they had scattered to distant fish camps in case of an attack, meaning that by the time they were evacuated to Nikolski and then Unalaska most had been left with no personal possessions. Furthermore, the removal cleared Unangax homes for use by U.S. troops, who occupied the vacant houses for the duration of the war.
On 14 June USCGC Onondaga was ordered to evacuate the residents of Saint Paul, and on 16 June USAT Delarof evacuated the entire communities of Saint Paul and Saint George. On the way to southeast Alaska, Delarof stopped briefly at Unalaska to pick up the evacuees from Atka.
The evacuation continued at the end of the month when Dutch Harbor was ordered to evacuate Nikolski, Akutan, Kashega, Biorka and Makushin.
Only the Unangax were evacuated, while the white residents of the islands were made to stay behind to help the troops, resulting in the separation of some mixed families. Japanese men were separated from their Native wives and moved to the internment camps in the center of the United States. Children had the choice to either stay with their mothers or leave with their fathers.
Transport conditions
Transport vessels such as the USAT Delarof, were severely overcrowded and lacked basic infrastructure, including drinkable water, food, and medical care. Disease was rampant on the Delarof. In one documented case, a government doctor refused to enter the ship’s hold to provide medical assistance to those on board. During the trip, Haretina Kochutin gave birth under these conditions and without assistance. Her newborn daughter, Dela, died three days later.
Internment
Arrangements were hastily made to accommodate the Unangax in the Alaska Panhandle as they were already en route, and they were eventually interned across a handful of locations. Conditions were poor and lacked the sufficient infrastructure to house the internees. About ten percent of the interned population perished before resettlement after the war.
Japanese forces transported some Attuan captives to Otaru, Hokkaido, where they were held as prisoners of war for the remainder of the war. Approximately forty percent of the Attuan prisoners died in captivity due to starvation and malnutrition.
Funter Bay Cannery
The villagers of Saint Paul spent most of World War II at the Thlinket Packing Company cannery at Funter Bay. The cannery had previously ceased operation in 1931 and had been used as storage before being acquired by P.E. Harris Co in 1941. By 1942 the buildings had fallen into disrepair with only a caretaker and his wife living on site when the owners struck a deal with the U.S. Government on the June 16 to lease the property for $60 per month, and on June 24 the entire native population of Saint George and Saint Paul arrived at Funter Bay. The following day villagers of St George were shifted to the mine site about one mile away.
The villagers were left to their own devices to make the place livable, building beds and repairing the decaying buildings at the site. Water was often in short supply and contaminated, and the cabins which had not been intended for winter occupation lacked good insulation or heating.
Funter Bay Mine
Across the bay from the cannery, the villagers of Saint George were housed in the shoreside camp of the former Admiralty Alaska Gold Mine. By June 1942 the mine had been out of production for more than 15 years and only the onsite caretaker (Rado Pekovich) and one other person lived at the site. Eventually the mine was leased to the government for $1 per year to house the villagers.
The mining camp facilities were not adequate to house the number of villagers due to electrical hazards, poisonous chemicals left from the mining activities and only two outhouses for the entire population. Like for the cannery, health and sanitation were chronic problems.
Killisnoo Herring Plant
About 50 miles (80 km) south of Funter Bay was the derelict Killisnoo Herring plant. Operations there began in the 1870s; in 1928 almost all of the housing burnt down, leaving only the industrial plant and a few nearby buildings. By the 1930 census the population had plummeted to only three people from around 300 before the fire.