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Archaic Greek expansion across the Mediterranean and Black Sea (750–550 BC)
The Greek colonisation was the expansion of Archaic Greeks across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BCE.
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The Greek colonisation was the expansion of Archaic Greeks across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BCE.
The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages, in that it consisted of organised direction by oikistes away from the originating metropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, or apoikiai (Greek: ἀποικία, transl. "home away from home"), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strong Greek city-states, functioning independently of their metropolis.
Greek colonisation was typically motivated by a combination of factors, depending on the context. Many Greek city-states experienced strong economic growth with consequent overpopulation of the motherland, such that the existing territory of these Greek city-states could no longer support a growing polity. The areas where the Greeks would try to colonise were hospitable and fertile.
As well as demographic pressure, environmental factors could prompt the colonisation of other lands. Herodotus's account of the founding of the colony of Cyrene in Libya tells of social unrest on the island of Thera (the colony's metropolis), caused by severe overpopulation and a prolonged drought. Herodotus provided two different accounts for the founding of Cyrene. The version of the Cyreneans emphasised the divine appointment of Battus (the founder) by the oracle of Apollo to establish a colony in Libya. Herodotus' inclusion of religious prophecies and mythical elements reflected a bias towards the role of religion as one of the factors that contributed to colonisation. In contrast, the version provided by the Therans focused on their King Grinnus (or Grinus) and his instruction to send Battus to set up a colony in Libya. Even though this account was more realistic, it might also have served as propaganda for the Therans to maintain their historical and cultural ties with the Cyreneans for economic and political benefits.
Fertile lands in the Peloponnese are limited. Thucydides mentioned that early Greek city states often fought for quality soil used in agriculture by conducting violent raids. This placed more strain on the general populace of city states, which made it hard for communities to settle and encouraged migration.
Another reason for Greek colonisation was the expansion of influence. As ancient Greeks in the Peloponnese and Ionia developed a sense of identity, they had the desire to spread their culture through colonisation. During the early days of Greek colonisation (8th to 7th centuries BCE), the apoikia (ἀποικία) was one of the most common types of Greek colony. Even though these colonies were usually independent of the metropolis and had their own governance, they usually modelled their systems on those of their mother city. Furthermore, apoikiai (ᾰ̓ποικῐ́αι) usually maintained strong cultural ties with the metropolis through their mutual heritage; this allowed mainstream Greek culture to spread to native populations.
Didorus's account on the founding of the colony of Thurium was driven by the invitation of the Sybarites to establish a panhellenic colony from various Greek city states. Archeological excavations have uncovered ruined Greek structures and artifacts which might give insights into the city's Greek origin. Moreover, the Athenians were eager to expand their influence and seek allies during the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides' account of the Athenian's attempt to colonise Sicily during the Peloponnesian War was due to the support from Sicilian cities which highlights the importance of establishing alliances to expand their own sphere of influence.
In some cases, some colonies were founded to escape from civil unrest or political instability. For instance, identity crisis in the metropolis caused political and social tensions, which resulted in expulsion of certain groups. Strabo mentioned the founding of Taras by the Parthenians, who were the descendants of Spartan women but were denied full rights citizenship. After a failed attempt to plot against the local citizens, they were urged to find the colony of Taras to prevent further conflict. Strabo's account of the founding of Taras by the Parthenians aligned with other historical context, such as the Messenian war, which gave birth to the Parthenians. By sending one of the parties away, social conflicts could be alleviated in the mother city. Modern researchers also suggest factors such as fleeing from a crime or even exploration could motivate others to set up new colonies.
Modern scholarship suggests the recognition of economic and strategic value leads to further colonisation. Many colonies were established along the Mediterranean and Black Sea as trading hubs and centers of commerce. These colonies were called Emporion (ἐμπόριον), which were usually founded in strategic locations that allowed them to control and facilitate certain trade routes. Over time, they were transformed into important trading centres. For example, Emporion colonies were set up along the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily due to the abundance of natural resources and fertile lands. This helped facilitate maritime trade and expand their own trade network. Moreover, they could regulate taxes as they developed into larger colonies, which could contribute to the long-term economic prosperity of the metropolis. Other colonies were established along the coastline as military outposts to protect the trade routes. The main goal of the Sicilian expedition undertaken by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian War was to capture Syracuse, a major strategic point and ally of the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League. According to Thucydides, the Athenians were also attracted to the wealth and resources available there even though it was exaggerated. Furthermore, he claimed that the capture of Sicily would solidify their power in the Mediterranean world. Even though Thucydides overemphasised personal factors, such as the desire for wealth and glory of individuals, modern scholars recognise the strategic importance of such expeditions that would help shape the decisions made by those individuals. By capturing Sicily, they would gain dominance over trade routes in the Mediterranean. This demonstrates that the Athenians were likely aware of the strategic and trade benefits that were brought by colonies.
During the 5th to 4th century BC, a new type of colony called Cleruchies (κληρουχία) was established by the Athenian empire. Unlike other Greek colonies, Cleruchies were politically dependent on Athens, where its governance was modelled after Athens and its citizen retained Athenian citizenship. Moreover, citizens living inside these colonies were granted lands in exchange for military service and had to pay taxes to Athens.
There are debates on the other motives of Cleruchies. Ancient sources suggest that Cleruchies were set up to alleviate poverty by giving land to the poor. Plutarch's account implies Cleruchies were established as a social welfare measure by distributing land to the poor. Moreover, there were ancient inscriptions in the Cleruchy of Brea that intends for land allocation only for the lower and middle classes, excluding higher property classes. On the contrary, some ancient Greek grave markers in the Cleruchy of Euboea suggest that wealthy individuals resided in the colony. Furthermore, archaeological evidence on the site of Vrachos on Euboea suggests that it was not solely populated by the poor. For instance, the presence of 200 non-Athenian mercenaries in the area as well as strong fortifications suggests heavy economic and military investments there. Other modern scholars suggest that the motive was to safeguard grain fleets and Cleruchies were set up along the route to the Black Sea, where the land was more fertile than in Greece. Some islands, such as Lesbos, contributed significantly to Athens through rent from settlements. Hence, Cleruchies were important to Athens not only as strategic locations but also as a source of wealth in the form of agriculture and rents, which were vital during the Peloponnesian War.
The founding of the colonies was typically an organised enterprise by the metropolis (mother city), although in many cases it could involve collaboration with other cities. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the place to be colonised was decided in advance with the goal of offering business advantages and protection from raiders. The mission always included a leader, or oikistes, nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parcelled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis.
Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during the period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to the Greeks' strong connection to the sea.
While the term ἐποικισμός referred to the founding of a new settlement or colony, the term ἐνοικισμός was used to describe the settlement of Greeks among native populations, as in the case of the Greek quarter at Gravisca.
The Greeks started colonising around the beginning of the 8th century BC when the Euboeans founded Pithecusae in Southern Italy and Olynthus in Chalcidice, Greece. Subsequently, they founded the colonies of Cumae, Zancle, Rhegium and Naxos.
At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of the Lelantine War but other Greeks—such as the Ionians and Corinthians—continued to found colonies. The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy, Thrace and on the Black Sea. Thera founded Cyrene and Andros, and Samos founded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean.
The Greek "colonies" differed from many colonies established in later history:
To use the term 'colonization" for this expansion is problematic, since it invites false associations. Unlike the colonization whereby early modern states seized the New World, the settlement of the Mediterranean was not centrally controlled. The oracle at Delphi seems to have been a hub where information was gathered, but settlements emanated from a multitude of Greek poleis. It is even in doubt whether the foundations had any official character. At least in some cases, it is more likely that they were private initiatives. Often, cities may well not have emerged through a single founding act, but developed from trading posts that were initially intended to be temporary. Whereas in the early modern period, gaining and developing land were important goals of colonization, the settlements of the Greeks were limited to coastal regions and did not involve demanding tribute or laying claim to the hinterland. And unlike the Spanish and English empires, the new settlements quickly became independent of the mother cities. The term 'early Greek/great Greek colonization' is therefore placed here between inverted commas.
Wiebke Denecke summarises: "The 'Great Greek Colonization' [...] peaked between 750–500 BC, when Greek-speaking people of about twenty Greek municipalities on the Greek mainland, the West coast of Asia minor, modern-day Turkey, created a couple of hundred trading ports on the coasts of southern Italy, the Black Sea, and Gaul.
Numerous colonies were founded in Northern Greece, chiefly in the region of Chalcidice but also in the region of Thrace.
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