The Ottoman–Persian War was a series of military conflicts fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid dynasty of Iran during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II and his son Selim I. Sparked by sectarian and territorial rivalries, the wars culminated in major Ottoman victories, including the pivotal Battle of Chaldiran (1514) and the subsequent conquest of Eastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia. These campaigns marked the beginning of a long-standing Ottoman–Persian rivalry that would last until 1918
Background
In 1500, after becoming leader of the Safavid order, Ismail I launched a revolt against the Aq Qoyunlu state, first conquering the Shirvanshahs and later all of Iran. During his campaigns, he massacred thousands of Sunnis and ultimately destroyed the Aq Qoyunlu entirely. Prince Selim, who closely followed these events, feared a Safavid invasion of Ottoman territory and repeatedly warned his father, Beyazid II, though his concerns were ignored.
In 1505, Ismail's brother Ibrahim raided Trabzon, which was ruled by Selim, with 3,000 men, but was repelled by just 450 soldiers under Selim's command. This marked the first direct battle between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Iran, and conflicts under Selim's leadership would continue for the next twelve years.
The second clash occurred in 1507, when the Safavids invaded the Dulkadirids with a force of 20,000 men, crossing Ottoman territory to attack the beylik and punish Ala al-Dawla Bozkurt.
Frustrated by his father's inaction against the Safavids, Selim independently invaded Erzincan and defeated a Safavid force of 10,000 without his father's approval. Despite this victory, he was later ordered to return Erzincan to the Safavids.
Timeline
1505
In 1505, Ibrahim, the brother of Shah Ismail I, led a force of 3,000 men to raid the Ottoman province of Trabzon, then governed by Selim I.
Selim, commanding just 450 soldiers, successfully repelled the Safavid incursion and pursued the retreating forces as far as Erzincan, inflicting heavy casualties and capturing their arms and supplies. He also dispatched another detachment to raid western Safavid territory.
Following the clash, Shah Ismail sent an envoy to Bayezid II, protesting Selim's actions and demanding the return of the seized weaponry and prisoners. Bayezid, however, did not yield; instead, he responded with gifts and assurances of peace.
1507
In 1507, the Safavids under Shah Ismail I invaded Anatolia once again, this time targeting Bozkurt Bey, ruler of the Dulkadirids. Their forces passed through Ottoman lands and recruited local Turkmen tribesmen, subjects of the empire, which was seen as a direct violation of Ottoman sovereignty.
Although Bayezid II refrained from retaliation, Selim independently launched a counterattack. He struck at Erzincan and Bayburt, defeating the Safavid forces dispatched by Ismail.
1510
In 1510, Shah Ismail sent another expedition toward Trabzon, repeating the failed 1505 attempt to challenge Selim's rule in the region. The invading forces, again led by Ismail's brother, were decisively defeated by Selim.
1511
In 1511, Şahkulu, a Turkmen Kızılbash leader in Anatolia, launched a pro-Safavid revolt primarily in the Teke Peninsula.
In the early stages of the rebellion, in May 1511, Şahkulu led a force of 400–500 men and raided Antalya. Shortly after, he confronted Şehzade Korkut, who, despite having a larger force, fled the battlefield without a fight, abandoning his treasury. Upon Korkut's retreat, Seeasker Hasan Pasha saved the treasury from Şahkulu and escaped to Antalya, where he was attacked and defeated by a 3,000 strong rebel force. Wounded in the battle, he took refuge in the castle at Adana with other survivors. The rebels laid siege to the castle, but Şahkulu, unable to capture it, lifted the siege and advanced northward, capturing Isparta and attacking Burdur.
Murad Pasha, the sanjakbey of Burdur, attempted to defend the city with 2,000 men but was killed in the battle, and the city fell to the rebels.
After waiting briefly at Burdur, Şahkulu marched to Kütahya on 16 April 1511. Bayezid II, fearing the rebels would reach İstanbul, sent Hadım Ali Pasha and Karagöz Ahmet Pasha with 5,000 men to Kütahya. Şahkulu, upon learning this, temporarily retreated and awaited the Ottoman forces' arrival. After their arrival, he ambushed and killed almost the entire army, capturing and executing Ahmet Pasha.
Following this victory, Şahkulu sent Teki Baba to besiege Kütahya while he invaded Manisa to capture Şehzade Korkut, defeating him in another battle and killing Serasker Hasan Pasha along with several sanjakbeys.
After the rebels besieging Kütahya were routed by Haydar Pasha, Şahkulu left Manisa and attacked Kütahya, killing Haydar Pasha. In response, Bayezid dispatched an army of 50,000 under Kâtip Ali Pasha, who engaged Şahkulu near Ankara on 15 July. After a long battle, the Ottomans were defeated; their commander was killed and many soldiers fled, while Şahkulu suffered only about 500 casualties.
After this victory, Şahkulu besieged Adana again but lifted the siege after learning that the Ottomans sent an 8,000 strong force under Hadım Ali Pasha. He then retreated toward Safavid lands with his 13,000 men. During the pursuit, Şahkulu attacked Karaman, killing berebey Haydar Pasha (not the same Haydar Pasha killed in Kütahya) and the sanjakbey of Karaman, Cündî Kemal Bey.
Following this, Şahkulu fled to Sivas but was caught by Hadım Ali Pasha after a 14-day pursuit. In a subsequent battle at Sivas (or according to some sources, Adıyaman), the rebels defeated the Ottomans, killing Ali Pasha. Şahkulu went missing after the battle, presumed dead; his body was never found. Surviving rebels fled to Safavid lands, where they were welcomed by Shah Ismail.
1512
Taking advantage of the turmoil within the Ottoman Empire, Shah Ismail sent Nur-Ali Khalifa into Ottoman territory to recruit Qizilbashs who had been unable to join his service. Upon arriving in Şebinkarahisar, Nur-Ali Khalifa publicly proclaimed the orders of Shah Ismail. As a result, some three to four thousand sipahi gathered with their families. The depopulated villages are recorded in the Ottoman cadastral registers.
Nur-Ali Khalifa, along with the newly joined Qizilbashs, marched on Malatya and captured the city, then advanced toward Tokat. The people of Tokat pledged allegiance to Nur Ali Khalifa. A khutbah was recited in the name of Shah Ismail in Tokat. When Nur-Ali Khalifa left Tokat and arrived in Kazabad, Şehzade Murad, the son of Şehzade Ahmed, joined the Qizilbashs with an army of about ten thousand men.
When Nur-Ali Khalifa returned to Tokat with the prince, the locals refused to let them enter the city. In response, they set Tokat on fire and turned toward Niksar. Şehzade Murad later parted ways with Nur-Ali Khalifa and went to meet Shah Ismail.
Nur-Ali Khalifa laid siege to Çemişgezek, which surrendered without resistance. Later, he reportedly oppressed and killed many notables and residents of the Melkişli tribe.
While heading toward his tımar in the center of Erzincan, Nur-Ali Khalifa learned that Ottoman vizier Hadım Sinan Pasha was pursuing him with an army. In a battle near Eyüyazı, Hadım Sinan Pasha was defeated and Yularkıstı Sinan Pasha was killed. Following this, Nur-Ali Khalifa returned to central Erzincan as a victorious commander.
1514
The two armies met at the Battle of Chaldiran. During the battle, the Ottomans fielded an army of approximately 60,000 to 300,000 men, while the Safavid army numbered around 20,000 to 80,000.
At the outset, Selim I ordered the capture of the hills southwest of the plain so that the army could safely position its back against the mountains. Accordingly, the vanguard troops under the command of Orhan Bey quickly secured these hills.
Selim I personally commanded the center, accompanied by the Kazasker, the Grand Vizier Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, the vizier Dukaginoğlu Ahmed Pasha, and Mustafa Pasha. The right flank, composed of Anatolian troops, was commanded by the Beylerbey of Anatolia, Hadım Sinan Pasha, and the Beylerbey of Karaman, Zeynel Pasha. The left flank, made up of Rumelian troops, was under the command of Rumeli Beylerbey Hasan Pasha. Anatolian and Rumelian azep troops were positioned in the most dangerous spot—right in front of the cannons. About 200 cannons were placed on the dominant hills. At first sight, Shah Ismail's army would not notice the hidden cannons and would charge at the azep troops standing in front of them. At that moment, the azep troops would skillfully clear the front and trap the Safavid army in a circle of cannon fire.
Shah Ismail himself commanded the right wing of his army, the left was commanded by the governor of Diyarbakir, Ustacluoğlu Mehmet Khan, and the center by his grand vizier Mir Abdulbaki. Shah Ismail planned to win a magnificent victory through the superiority of his armored cavalry.
When the battle began, the Ottoman soldiers used heavy firearms called Fitilli musket or Gürleyen Demirler for the first time in this battle. When these muskets fired, they created large gaps in the Safavid ranks. Seeing his army falter, Shah Ismail led the right wing under his command to attack the Ottoman left wing. The azep troops could not carry out Selim's plan. They failed to move aside in time and the cannons could not fire. The tired and exhausted Rumelian troops were unable to withstand Shah Ismail's fresh forces. During this charge, Shah Ismail killed Rumeli Beylerbey Hasan Pasha.
Sultan Selim was quick to grasp the situation. He ordered his artillery to open fire while personally cutting off Shah Ismail's retreat with his elite janissaries. Although the Ottoman left wing was destroyed, Selim, who commanded the center, and Hadım Sinan Pasha, who commanded the right wing, used clever maneuvers to put the Safavid army in a difficult position.
The azep troops fell back behind the cannons, and the cannon fire began. The commander of the Safavid left wing, Ustacluoğlu Mehmet Khan, drove his soldiers straight into the mouth of the artillery. Shouting "Strike now!", he leapt forward himself but was knocked from his horse and killed by the lance of an Ottoman cavalryman.
Malkoçoğlu Ali Bey and Malkoçoğlu Tur Ali Bey, following Selim's orders, charged at Shah Ismail with their men, but both were killed. However, Malkoçoğlu Ali Bey fired his double-barreled pistol, gifted by Selim himself, and wounded Shah Ismail in the arm and thigh. In response, Shah Ismail's groom, Atçeken Hızır, approached from behind and killed Malkoçoğlu.
The battle lasted one day. Realizing he would lose, Shah Ismail sent his last remaining forces against the Ottoman army. He then exchanged clothes and horses with Atçeken Hızır and fled. Hızır, disguised in Shah Ismail's garments, rode back into the battlefield shouting "I am the Shah!" He was captured by the Ottomans but later escaped.
At the end of the battle, as the Safavid army began to scatter, Shah Ismail left the battlefield and retreated to Dergezin. Many famous Kızılbash leaders like Ustaclu Mohammed Khan, Pir Ömer Bey Şireci, Köse Hamza, and Lala Hüseyin Bey were killed in this battle.
Selim I at first thought the Safavid withdrawal was a ruse, but once it was clear the battle was won, he allowed his army to loot the battlefield and most of the captured prisoners were executed.
In this battle, the Ottoman army used the latest military technology and secured a great victory. On September 6, 1514, Selim I entered Tabriz, the capital of the Safavid state. He wanted to spend the winter there, but due to rising unrest among his exhausted troops, he had to return to Istanbul, abandoning part of the newly captured territory.
The Safavids later recovered their lost territories, except for Eastern Anatolia, without further fighting. The main aim of this war was not territorial conquest but to resolve the power struggle between the Safavids and the Ottomans. As a result of the battle, the tribes and beyliks in Eastern Anatolia declared allegiance to the Ottomans. The battle also severed the link between the Safavids and their Mamluk allies in Egypt, which made Selim's Egyptian campaign easier. In addition, the Ottomans gained control of the Van-Tabriz section of the Silk Road.