The Liao dynasty (; traditional Chinese: 遼朝; simplified Chinese: 辽朝; pinyin: Liáo cháo), also known as the Khitan State (Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur), officially the Great Liao (Chinese: 大遼; pinyin: Dà Liáo), was a Khitan-led imperial dynasty of China and empire ruled by the Yelü clan that existed between 916 and 1125. Founded around the time of the collapse of the Tang dynasty, at its greatest extent it ruled over Manchuria, the Mongolian Plateau, the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, southern portions of Siberia, and the northern tip of the North China Plain.
The dynasty rose from the consolidation of power among the Khitans in the 8th century and their expansionist campaigns in the latter half of the 9th century. Eventually the Yila chieftain, Abaoji, became the leader of the Khitans and proclaimed a Chinese-style dynastic state in 916. The Liao dynasty launched multiple military campaigns against neighboring states and peoples including the Kumo Xi, Shiwei, Tatars, Zubu, Khongirad, Balhae, Goryeo, Later Tang, and the Song dynasty. Its conquests include the Sixteen Prefectures (including present-day Beijing and part of Hebei) by fueling a proxy war that led to the collapse of the Later Tang (923–936). In 1004, the Liao launched an expedition against the Northern Song dynasty. After heavy fighting and large casualties between the two empires, both sides worked out the Chanyuan Treaty. Through the treaty, the Liao forced the Northern Song to recognise them as peers and heralded an era of peace and stability between the two powers that lasted approximately 120 years. It was the first state to control all of Manchuria.
The Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1125 with the capture of the Emperor Tianzuo of Liao. However, the remaining Liao loyalists, led by Yelü Dashi (who would become Emperor Dezong), established the Western Liao dynasty (or Qara Khitai), which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost a century before being conquered by the Mongol Empire. Although cultural achievements associated with the Liao dynasty are considerable, and a number of various statuary and other artifacts exist in museums and other collections, major questions remain over the exact nature and extent of the influence of the Liao culture upon subsequent developments, such as the musical and theatrical arts.
Names
The Great Khitan State (Chinese: 大契丹; pinyin: Dà Qìdān) was founded in 907 by Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao). In 938 or 947 Abaoji's successor, Emperor Taizong of Liao, officially renamed the dynasty as Great Liao (Chinese: 大遼; pinyin: Dà Liáo). This was probably due to the inclusion of non-Khitan peoples in the state. The name was changed back to Great Khitan in 983 during the reign of the Emperor Shengzong of Liao due to a re-assertion of Khitan identity. In 1066 Emperor Daozong of Liao reintroduced the dynastic name Great Liao, and the title remained in official use until the dynasty's collapse. Both Great Khitan and Great Liao enjoyed about 100 years of usage.
In the Khitan script, the state's name included the words Khitan and Liao, but their order was reversed depending on which took precedence. When the state was called Great Khitan in Chinese, the corresponding Khitan language name was Great Khitan Liao (Great Qidun Hura), whereas when it was known as Great Liao in Chinese, the corresponding Khitan name was Great Liao Khitan (Great Hura Qidun). The full name in the Khitan language was thus either Great Central Khitan Liao State (Great Tiaudu Qidi Xura Guren) or Great Central Liao Khitan State (Great Tiaudu Xura Qidi Guren). It is uncertain what the word Liao (Hura) actually meant in the Khitan language. There are several theories for its possible meaning including black, broad, country, the Liao River, or simply a prestigious term whose original meaning had been lost.
In 1124 the successor state established by Yelü Dashi in the Western Regions also officially adopted the dynastic name Great Liao. In historiography, however, this regime is more commonly called the Western Liao or Qara Khitai. The Qara Khitans used neither Western Liao or Qara Khitai to refer to themselves. They regarded themselves as the legitimate continuation of the Liao dynasty and continued to use the Khitan name, Great Liao Khitan (Great Liao in Chinese), as their self-designation. Western Liao is a Chinese designation and Qara Khitai is a Turko-Mongol term. Qara Khitai cannot be found in any Muslim sources before the Mongol invasions, after which Turko-Mongol speakers mistook the word for Liao (Hura) as qara (black). Muslim historians initially referred to the state as Khitai, which may have come from the Uyghur form, in which the final -n or -ń became -y. They adopted the name Qara Khitai after the Mongol invasions.
Due to the dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Northeast China and Mongolia, and later the Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term Khitai came to mean China to people near them in Central Asia, Russia, and northwestern China. The name was then introduced to medieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became Cathay. In the modern era, words related to Khitai are still used as a name for China by Turkic peoples, such as the Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang region and the Kazakhs of Kazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as the Russians and Bulgarians.
The Khitan imperial family used two different names for their surname, Yila and Yelü. Yila (Ila) was probably an older term and meant stallion, related to messenger, standard-bearer, warrior. Yelü (Yarud) was adopted at a later point, possibly in the 930s, and is related to the Khitan adjective for flourishing, prosperous.
History
Pre-dynastic history
Origins
The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the Book of Wei, a history of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) that was completed in 554. Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans being active during the late third and early fourth centuries. The Book of Jin (648) mentions the Khitans in the section covering the reign of Murong Sheng (398–401). The Samguk Sagi (1145) mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378.
It is generally believed that the Khitans emerged from the Yuwen branch of the Xianbei people. Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, the Yuwen split into three tribes, one of which was called the Kumo Xi. In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans. This view is partially backed up by the Book of Wei, which describes the Khitans originating from the Xianbei. Beginning in the Song dynasty, some Chinese scholars suggested that the Khitans might have descended from the Xiongnu people. While modern historians have rejected the idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin, there is some support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu origin. Beginning with Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in the fourteenth century, several scholars have theorized that the Khitans were Mongolic in origin, and in the late 19th century, Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans were Tungusic in origin (modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim).
After splitting from the Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi fled to the region of Songmo (modern southern Hexigten Banner and western Ongniud Banner). According to the New Book of Tang, the territory of the Khitans rested on what is now the area south of Xar Moron River and east of the Laoha. The Khitans then faced a joint invasion by the Rouran Khaganate and Goguryeo, which caused them to migrate south to the east of Bailang River (modern Daling River).
By the time the Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China's Jilin and Liaoning Provinces. The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region, as well as to the Northern Qi (550–577) and Sui (589–618) dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of the Uighurs and Sui and Tang dynasties. In the Book of Sui (Volume 84), the Khitan are described as "bellicose in plundering and raiding borders" and "the most uncourteous and arrogant among all barbarians". According to the History of Liao, the Khitans were nomads who migrated according to the season. They depended on horses for their livelihood and let them graze openly while their men were demobilized. Their men drank kumiss and practiced archery to hunt for their daily needs. Due to their way of life, they often had the upper hand in military affairs.
Eight tribes
There were eight Khitan tribes that shared power by rotating leadership triennially. The Khitan federation presented tribute to the Northern Yan (409–436), which in return invested the Khitan khan as Prince Guishan. The Khitans also regularly presented tribute to the Northern Wei (386–534) court in the form of horses and animal skins. Trade occurred on the border in Helong (modern Chaoyang) and Miyun. In 553, the Khitans suffered a defeat to the armies of Northern Qi (550–577) and lost a large portion of their population as well as cattle. For a time they resided in Goguryeo. In 584, they submitted to the Sui dynasty (581–618). In 605, they were attacked by the Türks and lost 40,000 men and women. The eight tribes of old dispersed. Only two Khitan leaders are known from this period: Hechen and Wuyu. The title of Khitan chieftains was Mofuhe or Mohefu.
Dahe Confederation
In the early 7th century, the Dahe clan unified the Khitan tribes into a federation. The Hedahe were the leading tribe. The component tribes were largely autonomous and the Dahe were only responsible for foreign affairs. After the Dahe united the Khitans, leadership was selected from their lineage by "Shixuan", electing a leader based on their talent and ability. The other clans had the right to vote but not to be elected.
The Dahe Confederation submitted to the Tang in both 628 and 648, under the leadership of Mohui and Kuge respectively. Kuge was appointed the Governor-general of Songmo. The chieftains of the tribes were appointed as prefects. The Tang emperor bestowed the imperial surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that was "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes". Some Khitan tribes were not included in the Dahe Confederation. The Neiji tribe led by Sun Aocao submitted to the Tang in 619. Aocao's great-grandson Sun Wanrong was appointed prefect of Guicheng.
Towards the turn of the century, Tang control of the north began to slip. The Governor-general of Yingzhou, Zhao Wenhui, regarded the Khitan chieftains as his servants. The Khitan chieftain Sun Wanrong and his brother-in-law, the governor of Songmo, Li Jinzhong, felt insulted and bullied by Zhao. In 696, a famine occurred in Khitan territory and caused them to rebel. Li Jinzhong captured Yingzhou and declared himself "Wushang Khagan" (paramount khagan). The Tang were defeated at Xiashi Gorge (Lulong County) and continued to suffer defeats until Li Jinzhong died of disease. Qapaghan Qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate attacked the Khitans from the north while the Tang invaded from the south. The Khitans suffered a heavy defeat before Sun Wanrong rescued the situation and counterattacked, seizing Yingzhou and Youzhou. A 170,000 strong Tang army was defeated by the Khitans. Another 200,000 soldiers were sent against the Khitans but also failed to stop their advance. However the Türks sacking their capital, Xincheng, and the Kumo Xi defected from their ranks. After Sun Wanrong was killed by his servant, it took another fifteen years from 700 to 714 before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans.
In 720, the military chief (Yaguan) Ketuyu attacked the reigning Khitan ruler, Suogu, who fled to Yingzhou seeking Chinese protection. General Xue Tai was ordered to punish Ketuyu but he failed and was captured along with Suogu and the Kumo Xi king Li Dapu. Ketuyu enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu as the new Khitan ruler and sent tribute to the Tang court, but the official in charge treated him with rudeness. Ketuyu murdered the Khitan ruler and defected to the Türks. Ketuyu suffered a defeat against the Tang in 732 and fled while his Kumo Xi allies surrendered to the Tang. In 734, Ketuyu defeated a Tang army with the support of his Türkic allies and then lost another battle against Tang forces under the command of Zhang Shougui. The Tang convinced a Khitan military official, Li Guozhe, to murder Ketuyu and the Khitan ruler Qulie, who had been enthroned by Ketuyu.
Yaonian Confederation
The rebellion of Ketuyu ended Dahe supremacy in 730. Li Guozhe, chief of the Yishihuo tribe, and Nieli, also from the Yishihuo tribe, founded a new confederation. Nieli enthroned Zuwu Khagan from the Yaonian clan as the supreme ruler of the Khitans, while Nieli became the military chief. Although there was a khagan, the military chief's power actually exceeded that of the khagan throughout the duration of the confederation. The ten tribes of the Yaonian Confederation consisted of the Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila. Other tribes are also mentioned: the Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju.
The Tang governor An Lushan launched two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second. An then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. An had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhuer who worked for him as a teenager but An Lushan castrated him. Li Zhuer was highly trusted by An Lushan, and he and two other men served as his personal attendants. Li Zhuer was approached by conspirators who wanted to kill An when he became ill and started abusing his subordinates. An was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang, who was beaten by An before. The An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty.