Vespasian

Vespasian (; full birth name Latin: Titus Flavius Vespasianus, pronounced [ˈt̪ɪt̪ʊs ˈfɫaːwijʊs wɛs.pasiˈjaːnʊs]) 17 November 9 AD – 23 June 79) was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty, which lasted for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolidation of the empire brought political stability and an extensive building program.

After Vitellius, Vespasian was the second emperor from an equestrian family and the first emperor who rose later in his lifetime into the senatorial rank as the first member of his family to do so. He rose to prominence through military achievement: he served as legate of Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43, and later led the suppression of the Jewish rebellion of 66–70.

When the emperor Nero committed suicide in June 68, Vespasian was engaged in the campaign in Judaea. Rome was plunged into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After the first two claimants, Galba and Otho, died in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in April 69. The Roman legions of Egypt and Judaea reacted by declaring Vespasian, their commander, emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian then joined forces with Mucianus, the governor of Syria, and Primus, a general in Pannonia. The latter two led the Flavian forces against Vitellius in Rome, while Vespasian took control of Egypt. On 20 December 69, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate.

Little information survives about the government during Vespasian's ten-year rule. He reformed the financial system of the Roman Empire after the campaign against Judaea ended successfully, and initiated several ambitious construction projects, including the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known today as the Colosseum. Through his general Agricola, Vespasian expanded Roman control in Britain. Vespasian is often credited with restoring political stability to Rome following the chaotic reigns of his predecessors. After he died in 79, he was succeeded by his elder son, Titus, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to be succeeded by his natural son and establishing the Flavian dynasty.

Early life

Vespasian was born in a village north-east of Rome called Falacrinae, the son of Titus Flavius Sabinus, a Roman moneylender, debt collector, and tax collector. His family was relatively undistinguished and lacking in pedigree. His mother, Vespasia Polla, also belonged to an equestrian family, with her father rising to the rank of prefect of the camp and her brother becoming a Senator.

Vespasian was educated in the countryside, in Cosa, near what is today Ansedonia, Italy, under the guidance of his paternal grandmother, so much so that even when he became emperor, he often returned to the places of his childhood, having left the former villa exactly as it had been.

Early in his life he was somewhat overshadowed by his older brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus, who had entered public life and pursued the cursus honorum, holding an important military command in the Danube.

Military and political career

Early career

In preparation for a praetorship, Vespasian needed two periods of service in the minor magistracies, one military and the other public. Vespasian served in the military in Thracia for about three years. On his return to Rome in about 30 AD, he obtained a post in the vigintivirate, the minor magistracies, most probably in one of the posts in charge of street cleaning. His early performance was so unsuccessful that Emperor Caligula reportedly stuffed handfuls of muck down his toga to correct the uncleaned Roman streets, formally his responsibility.

During the period of the ascendancy of Sejanus, there is no record of Vespasian engaging in any significant political activity. After completion of a term in the vigintivirate, Vespasian was entitled to stand for election as quaestor, a senatorial office. However, his lack of political or family influence meant that Vespasian served as quaestor in one of the provincial posts in Crete, rather than as assistant to important men in Rome.

Next he needed to gain a praetorship, carrying the Imperium, but non-patricians and the less well-connected had to serve in at least one intermediary post as an aedile or tribune. Vespasian failed at his first attempt to gain an aedileship but was successful in his second attempt, becoming an aedile in 38. Despite his lack of significant family connections or success in office, he achieved praetorship in either 39 or 40, at the youngest age permitted (30), during a period of political upheaval in the organisation of elections. His long-standing relationship with freed-woman Antonia Caenis, confidential secretary to Antonia Minor (the Emperor's grandmother) and part of the circle of courtiers and servants around the Emperor, may have contributed to his success.

Invasion of Britannia

Upon the accession of Claudius as emperor in 41, Vespasian was appointed legate of Legio II Augusta, stationed in Germania, thanks to the influence of the Imperial freedman Narcissus. In 43, Vespasian and the II Augusta participated in the Roman invasion of Britain, and he distinguished himself under the overall command of Aulus Plautius. After participating in crucial early battles on the rivers Medway and Thames, he was sent to reduce the south west, penetrating through regions later known as the counties of Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall with the probable objectives of securing the south coast ports and harbours along with the tin mines of Cornwall and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.

Vespasian marched from Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester) to subdue the hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes, and captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts, including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter). During this time he injured himself and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on his return to Rome.

Later political career

His success as the legate of a legion earned him a consulship in 51, after which he retired from public life, having incurred the enmity of Claudius' wife, Agrippina, who was the most powerful and influential figure in her husband's reign. He came out of retirement in 63 when he was sent as governor to Africa Province. According to Tacitus (ii.97), his rule was "infamous and odious" but according to Suetonius (Vesp. 4), he was "upright and, highly honourable". On one occasion, Suetonius writes, Vespasian was pelted with turnips.

Vespasian used his time in North Africa wisely. Usually, governorships were seen by ex-consuls as opportunities to extort huge amounts of money to regain the wealth they had spent on their previous political campaigns. Corruption was so rife that it was almost expected that a governor would come back from these appointments with his pockets full. However, Vespasian used his time in North Africa making friends instead of money, something that would be far more valuable in the years to come. During his time in North Africa, he found himself in financial difficulties and was forced to mortgage his estates to his brother. To revive his fortunes he turned to the mule trade and gained the nickname mulio (muleteer).

Returning from Africa, Vespasian toured Greece in Nero's retinue, but lost Imperial favor after paying insufficient attention (some sources suggest he fell asleep) during one of the Emperor's recitals on the lyre, and found himself in the political wilderness.

First Jewish Revolt

In 66 AD, Vespasian was appointed to suppress the Jewish revolt underway in Judea. The fighting there had killed the previous governor and routed Cestius Gallus, the governor of Syria, when he tried to restore order. Two legions, with eight cavalry squadrons and ten auxiliary cohorts, were therefore dispatched under the command of Vespasian while his elder son, Titus, arrived from Alexandria with another.

During this time he became the patron of Flavius Josephus, a Jewish resistance leader captured at the Siege of Yodfat, who would later write his people's history in Greek. Ultimately, thousands of Jews were killed and the Romans destroyed many towns in re-establishing control over Judea; they also took Jerusalem in 70. Vespasian is remembered by Josephus (writing as a Roman citizen), in his Antiquities of the Jews, as a fair and humane official, in contrast with the notorious Herod Agrippa II whom Josephus goes to great lengths to demonize.

While under the emperor's patronage, Josephus wrote that after the Roman Legio X Fretensis, accompanied by Vespasian, destroyed Jericho on 21 June 68, Vespasian took a group of Jews who could not swim (possibly Essenes from Qumran), fettered them, and threw them into the Dead Sea to test the sea's legendary buoyancy. Indeed, the captives bobbed up to the surface after being thrown in the water from the boats.

At the conclusion of the Jewish war, Josephus discussed a prophecy from sacred scripture that about the time when Jerusalem and the Second Temple would be taken, a man from their own nation would become "governor of the habitable earth", as in the Messiah. Josephus interpreted the prophecy as denoting the government of Vespasian. Tacitus agreed that the prophecy discussed Vespasian (as well as Titus), but that "the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty destinies of themselves, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth."

According to the Babylonian Talmud, during this time, Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai was a leader of the Jewish people and agreed to sneak out of the city to meet with Vespasian. When Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai reached the Roman camp, he said to Vespasian "Greetings to you, the king; greetings to you, the king." Vespasian replied that the Rabbi should be put to death because the Rabbi falsely called him "king." In the meantime, as they were talking, a messenger from Rome arrived and told him that the previous Emperor had died, and that the Noblemen wanted to appoint Vespasian as King. Vespasian was surprised to learn that the Rabbi's greeting had come true. He acknowledged the wisdom of the Rabbi and offered to grant a request of his choice. The Rabbi said "Give me Yavne and its Sages and do not destroy it, and spare the dynasty of Rabban Gamliel and do not kill them as if they were rebels, and lastly give me doctors to heal Rabbi Tzadok." This story reflected Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai's efforts to maintain the future of the Jewish people after the destruction of the Temple.

Year of the Four Emperors (69)

After the death of Nero in 68, Rome saw a succession of short-lived emperors and a year of civil wars. Galba was murdered by supporters of Otho, who was defeated by Vitellius. Otho's supporters, looking for another candidate to support, settled on Vespasian. According to Suetonius, a prophecy ubiquitous in the Eastern provinces claimed that from Judaea would come the future rulers of the world. Vespasian eventually believed that this prophecy applied to him, and found a number of omens and oracles that reinforced this belief.

Although Vespasian and Titus resolved to challenge for the Principate in February 69, they made no move until later in the year. Throughout the early months of 69, Vespasian convened frequently with the Eastern generals. Gaius Licinius Mucianus was a notable ally. Governor of Syria and commander of three legions, Mucianus also held political connections to many of the most powerful Roman military commanders from Illyricum to Britannia by virtue of his service to the famous Neronian general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. In May 69, Mucianus formally implored Vespasian to challenge Vitellius. His appeal was followed by Vespasian's official proclamation as Emperor in early July. Under instructions from the prefect Tiberius Alexander, the legions at Alexandria took an oath of loyalty to Vespasian on 1 July. They were swiftly followed by Vespasian's Judaean legions on 3 July and thereafter by Mucianus' Syrian legions on 15 July.

Vitellius, the occupant of the throne, had the veteran legions of Gaul and the Rhineland. But the feeling in Vespasian's favour quickly gathered strength, and the armies of Moesia, Pannonia, and Illyricum soon declared for him. The praefectus Aegypti, who had been governor since Nero's reign, proclaimed Vespasian emperor at Alexandria on 1 July 69 AD.

While Vespasian himself was in Egypt, his troops entered Italy from the northeast under the leadership of Marcus Antonius Primus. They defeated Vitellius' army (which had awaited him in Mevania) at Bedriacum (or Betriacum), sacked Cremona and advanced on Rome. Vitellius hastily arranged a peace with Antonius, but the Emperor's Praetorian Guard forced him to retain his seat. After furious fighting, Antonius' army entered Rome. In the resulting confusion, the Capitol was destroyed by fire and both Vitellius and Vespasian's brother Sabinus were killed. At Alexandria, Vespasian immediately sent supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict assuring he would reverse the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason.

He was the first emperor since Augustus to appear in Egypt. While there, he visited the Temple of Serapis where he reportedly experienced a vision, and he performed healing miracles. He was hailed as pharaoh and proclaimed the son of the creator-deity Amun (Zeus-Ammon) in the style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies.

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