The Roman Republic conquered and occupied territories in the Iberian Peninsula that were previously under the control of native Celtic, Iberian, Celtiberian and Aquitanian tribes and the Carthaginian Empire. The Carthaginian territories in the south and east of the peninsula were conquered in 206 BC during the Second Punic War. Control was gradually extended over most of the peninsula without annexations. It was completed after the end of the Roman Republic (27 BC), by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who annexed the whole of the peninsula to the Roman Empire in 19 BC.
Roman acquisition of the Carthaginian territories in south and east Hispania were the result of defeating the Carthaginians (206 BC) during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Afterwards, in 197 BC, the Romans established two Roman provinces: Hispania Citerior along most of the east coast and Hispania Ulterior in the south.
Over the next 170 years, the Republic expanded its control over Hispania. This was a gradual process of economic, diplomatic and cultural infiltration and colonization, with campaigns of military suppression when there was native resistance, rather than the result of a single policy of conquest. The Romans turned some native cities outside their two provinces into tributary cities and established outposts and Roman colonies to expand their control. Administrative arrangements were ad hoc. Governors who were sent to Hispania tended to act independently from the Senate due to the great distance from Rome. In the latter part of this period, the Senate attempted to exercise more control, but this was to try to curb abuse and extortion by officials in the peninsula. Conquest was a process of assimilation of the local tribes into the Roman culture and its economic system and laws.
This changed after the end of the Republic and the establishment of rule by emperors in Rome. After the Roman victory in the Cantabrian Wars in the north of the peninsula (the last rebellion against the Romans in Hispania), Augustus conquered the north of Hispania, annexed the whole peninsula and carried out administrative reorganisation in 19 BC.
The Roman province of Hispania Citerior was significantly expanded and came to include the eastern part of central Hispania and northern Hispania. It was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. Hispania Ulterior was divided into the provinces of Baetica (most of modern Andalusia) and Lusitania, which covered present day Portugal up to the River Durius (Douro), the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a small part of the province of Salamanca in today's Spain.
The Second Punic War
Carthaginian Iberia
Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the Phoenicians (and later the Carthaginians) established trading contacts in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula as well as along part of the east coast. Their trading posts on the coast exported minerals and other resources available in Iberia and imported manufactures from the Eastern Mediterranean.
During the 7th century BC, Greek traders based in Massalia (modern Marseille) traded throughout the coastal commercial centres of the region without establishing a permanent presence and later founded the trading cities of Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Roses). Part of this Greek trade was transported by Phoenician ships. The effect of contacts with the Greeks and the Phoenicians was that some of the coastal native peninsular peoples adopted some aspects of these eastern Mediterranean cultures.
After Carthage was defeated by Rome in the First Punic War (264–241 BC) and lost the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica to Rome, Hamilcar Barca conquered southern Hispania. His family established Carthaginian dominions in most of southern Hispania. The subjugation of the tribes in Hispania, which was later extended over the greater part the east coast of the peninsula, was achieved by force or through tributes, alliances, or marriages with local chiefs. The peninsula would go on to supply Carthage with a significant number of conscripts from areas controlled by Carthage along with mercenaries, especially the Balearic slingers and the Celtiberians.
The Ebro Treaty
Hamilcar was succeeded by Hasdrubal the Fair, his son-in-law, in 226 BC. Rome concluded a treaty with Hasbrubal "with the stipulation that neither side should extend its dominion beyond the Ebro, while the Saguntines, situated between the empires of the two peoples, should be preserved in independence". The cities in the northern part of the east coast were concerned about further Carthaginian expansion and allied with Rome to get her protection. This led to the establishment of the River Ebro as the boundary of the spheres of influence of the Carthaginians and the Romans in eastern Hispania. The city of Saguntum (Sagunto, formerly Murviedro) also made an alliance with Rome. It lay about midway between the Ebro and New Carthage, (Roman, Cartago Nova, today's Cartagena). The latter was an outpost founded by Hasdrubal the Fair. At that time, the Carthaginian territories lay to the south of Saguntum. Hannibal, Hamilcar's son and Hasdrubal's successor, extended Carthaginian territories northwards to the banks of the River Ebro. As a result, Saguntum found itself surrounded by Carthaginian territory.
The Saguntum Matter
The Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome was sparked off by an attack by Hannibal on Saguntum. Hannibal found a pretext to wage war on Saguntum in a dispute between the city and the surrounding Turduli. In response, Saguntum sent envoys to Rome to ask for help. The Roman Senate decided to send commissioners to Hispania to investigate the situation there, to warn Hannibal, if necessary, not to interfere with Saguntine matters and then to proceed to Carthage to submit the Saguntine complaints to the Carthaginian council. However, Hannibal had begun the siege of Saguntum before their departure. The Senate decided to still send the commissioners to Hannibal and, if he refused to cease hostilities, they were to go to Carthage and demand his surrender in satisfaction of the broken treaty.
The strong fortifications of Saguntum and stiff resistance by the populace repelled Hannibal's attack. Hannibal was seriously wounded when he approached the city wall. When the Roman ambassadors arrived at the port Hannibal said that it was unsafe for them to go to the city and that he was too busy to see them. Because he realised that if they could not see him they would go to Carthage, he sent a letter to his supporters in Carthage telling them to prevent his opponents from making any concessions to Rome. The mission of the commissioners in Carthage achieved nothing. The Carthaginian council replied that the war was started by the Saguntines not by Hannibal, and that Rome would commit an act of injustice if it took the side of the Saguntines.
After a lull that allowed the Saguntines to build a new wall to replace the damaged one, fierce fighting resumed. Hannibal's peace conditions were that Saguntum was to give all its gold and silver to the Turduli and that the townsfolk were to leave the city and go wherever the Carthaginians should order them. The Saguntines threw their gold and silver into a fire. Hannibal seized the city and there was a great slaughter of its inhabitants. The siege of Saguntum was said to have taken eight months. Hannibal then wintered in Cartago Nova.
In Rome, there was a feeling of shame at not having sent help to Saguntum and at Rome being so unprepared for war. Hannibal was now expected to cross the River Ebro with the support of forces from the Hispanic tribes. The Romans were concerned that this might rouse the Gauls in northern Italy to rebel.
The Romans decided to fight two campaigns, one in Africa (the Roman name for today's Tunisia and western Libya, Carthage's homeland) and one in Hispania. Six Roman legions (24,000 infantry and 1,800 cavalry) and 40,000 infantry of Italian allies and 4,400 allied cavalry were levied. A fleet of 220 ships of war and 20 light galleys was prepared. Two legions with 4,000 infantry and 300 cavalry each, 16,000 allied infantry and 1,800 allied cavalry and 160 warships and 12 light galleys were assigned to Tiberius Sempronius Longus, who was to lead the expedition to Africa. The expedition to Hispania was assigned to Publius Cornelius Scipio with two Roman legions, 14,000 allied infantry and 1,600 allied cavalry, and only 60 ships because an enemy naval offensive in Hispania was not expected.
A Roman commission was sent to Carthage to inquire whether the city had sanctioned Hannibal's attack on Saguntum. If, as it seemed likely, Carthage admitted to this, they were to formally declare war on Carthage. According to Livy, a Carthaginian senator replied that Rome was seeking to extort a confession of guilt. He added that it was for Carthage to investigate and take proceedings against one of its citizens if he had done something on just his own authority. The only point Rome could discuss was whether Hannibal's action was compatible with the terms of the treaty. He argued that Saguntum was not a Roman ally at the time of the treaty. Hasdrubal had made a treaty with Saguntum that Carthage could not be bound to because it was made without her knowledge. Livy states that Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, who had put forward the question, said: "Here we bring you war and peace, take which you please." In defiance he was told to decide what he preferred himself. He said that he gave Carthage war and Carthage accepted.
The Roman campaigns
First campaign
In 218 BC, the expeditionary force to Hispania reached Massalia (Marseilles) only to discover that Hannibal was already on his way to Italy. Publius Cornelius Scipio sent 300 cavalry inland to locate Hannibal's forces. By this time, Hannibal was crossing the River Rhone. He sent 500 Numidian cavalry towards the Romans to ascertain their numbers and their intentions. The two clashed and the Romans won a bloody battle. Hannibal continued his journey to Italy. Scipio decided to return to Italy to fight Hannibal there and sent his brother, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, to Hispania with the bulk of the expeditionary force. Gnaeus landed at Emporion, (Empúries). Livy states that Gnaeus gained the support of the coastal peoples north of the Ebro by renewing old alliances and forming new ones. Several strong contingents were recruited from amongst them. Hanno, who was in charge of Carthaginian forces in Hispania, encamped near the Romans and offered battle. Gnaeus Scipio, who preferred to fight the two Carthaginian commanders separately (the other Carthaginian commander was Hasdrubal Barca) accepted. The result was the Battle of Cissa, which was fought near Tarraco (Tarragona). Hanno was defeated and lost 6,000 men while 2,000 of his men, including those who were guarding the camp, were taken as prisoners. The Romans seized the camp and looted the baggage left by Hannibal. Hanno and Indibilis, the chief of the Ilergetes whom Polybius described as "despot of all central Iberia and a strenuous supporter of the Carthaginians", were also captured.
Hasdrubal, who had crossed the Ebro with 8,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry to look for the Romans as soon as they landed, heard of Hanno's defeat. He took to the sea, and he found the Roman fleet near Tarraco. Hasdrubal landed his cavalry, which found and killed many of the Romans who were foraging in the surrounding countryside and forced them back to their ships. He then withdrew across the Ebro before Gnaeus Scipio returned. The latter left a small garrison at Tarraco and took the fleet back to Emporiae.
Hasdrubal then incited the Ilergetes, who had given Gnaeus Scipio hostages, to revolt. Their men ravaged the fields of the local Roman allies. Gnaeus Scipio came out of his winter camp and devastated the territory of the Ilergetes, drove them to their capital, Atanagrus, besieged it, subdued the Ilergetes and exacted hostages and money. He then attacked the Ausetani, near the Ebro, who were Carthaginian allies and ambushed the Lacetani, who had come to the assistance to their Neighbours, killing 12,000 of them. The siege of Atanagrus lasted for 30 days. After the chief of the Ilergetes fled to Hasdrubal, the town surrendered. Gnaeus Scipio established winter quarters in Tarraco.
In 217 BC, Hasdrubal marched his army along the coast while his ships sailed near the shore. Gnaeus Scipio embarked with his best troops on 35 ships. His scouts spotted the enemy fleet at the mouth of the Ebro. The Carthaginians hastily prepared for battle, but in the Battle of the Ebro River the Roman ships approached in battle formation and the enemy ships fled. The Carthaginian line was overstretched and they did not manage to make it up the mouth of the river and ran ashore. The men disembarked at the mouth of the river and joined the infantry. The Romans dragged the beached ships into the water and seized 25 of them.
Hasdrubal withdrew to Cartago Nova. The Romans devastated the coastal land as far as the pass of Castulo, which led through the Sierra Morena, north of Cartago Nova. Gnaeus Scipio then headed north gaining the submission of many of the communities north of the Ebro. However, Mandonius and Indibilis, the chieftains of the Ilergetes, got their tribesmen to ravage the lands of the Roman allies. Gnaeus Scipio sent a detachment that easily defeated them. Meanwhile, the Celtiberians (who lived in east-central Hispania) invaded the area near Cartago Nova. They seized three fortified towns, defeated Hasdrubal, killed 15,000 and took 4,000 prisoners.
Publius Scipio, whose command was extended, rejoined his brother and brought a reinforcement of 30 warships, 8,000 troops, and a large supply convoy. As Hasdrubal was occupied fighting the Celtiberians, the brothers marched to Saguntum. Gnaeus Scipio took charge of the army and Publius Scipio commanded the fleet.
In 216 BC, after receiving reinforcements of 4,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry from Africa, Hasdrubal gave orders for the Carthaginian fleet to be put into readiness to protect the Balearic Islands and the coast. There was a desertion of the naval captains who were no longer loyal after being been heavily censured for cowardice for abandoning the fleet at the Battle of the Ebro River. The deserters had started an agitation amongst the Tartesii and several cities revolted. Hasdrubal invaded the Tartesii's territory, surrounded their camp and won a battle.