The Lam Sơn uprising was a rebellion against Ming China led by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi. The uprising began in early 1418 and ended in late 1427 with the victory of the Lam Sơn rebels, the retreat of the Ming army after the Đông Quan oath, and the establishment of the Later Lê dynasty.
In 1407, the Ming dynasty annexed the entire territory of Đại Ngu, the short-lived state ruled by the Hồ dynasty in what is now northern Vietnam and established the province of Jiaozhi. Their rule was met with resistance from the Viet people due to the Yongle Emperor's vigorous Sinicization policy, which aimed to assimilate the Viet. This policy caused widespread dissatisfaction and led to a series of uprisings across Jiaozhi, both large and small. After suppressing these uprisings, the Ming dynasty's rule became more stable than ever, but in some areas, there remained a latent risk of rebellion, particularly in the mountainous region of Thanh-Nghệ (modern Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An provinces), where the people were not willing to submit like those in the Kinh lộ region (the lowland Red River Delta).
In 1418, Lê Lợi raised an army in Lam Sơn, a rural mountainous area in today's Thanh Hóa province. In the early stages, the Lam Sơn rebels faced many difficulties, often only putting up weak resistance and suffering heavy losses against the Ming army's suppressing campaigns. The turning point occurred when Lê Lợi followed Nguyễn Chích's plan, advancing to liberate Nghệ An—a province in north-central Vietnam—in 1424 and using it as a base to strike out at other locations. After numerous clashes with the Ming army, the Lam Sơn rebels gained control of most of the territory from Thanh Hóa to Thuận Hóa (central Vietnam), tightening the siege on cities that had not yet surrendered. In 1426, with a strengthened army, Lê Lợi gradually mobilized his troops to the north. Utilizing the principle of "avoiding the strong and attacking the weak" and a strategy of mobility, the Lam Sơn army gradually forced the Ming troops to consolidate and defend important citadels. The decisive victory over the overwhelming Ming forces, led by Wang Tong, in the Tốt Động – Chúc Động campaign (near today's Hanoi), allowed the Lam Sơn rebels to gain the support of the majority of the Kinh lộ population, who had previously been intimidated by the might of the Ming. With strong support from the people, the Lam Sơn rebels shifted to the offensive, forcing the Ming troops to take refuge in their citadels and await reinforcements.
Taking advantage of the Ming army's low morale after consecutive defeats, Lê Lợi intensified enemy proselytizing and psychological warfare, using diplomatic measures to persuade besieged citadels to surrender. In a short period of time, most of the key citadels in northern Jiaozhi fell into the hands of the Lam Sơn rebels, either through surrender or siege. The Ming army only controlled two major strongholds, Đông Quan (the Ming administrative center in modern Hanoi) and Thanh Hóa, and a few smaller citadels, all of which were under strict siege and completely isolated. In 1427, in a final attempt to salvage the situation, the Xuande Emperor sent Liu Sheng and Mu Sheng with 110,000 troops divided into two routes to reinforce Wang Tong. However, the main force led by Liu Sheng was nearly completely annihilated by the Lam Sơn rebels in the Battle of Chi Lăng – Xương Giang, in present-day Lạng Sơn and Bắc Giang provinces. Liu Sheng himself, along with many other high-ranking generals, was killed in battle. Upon receiving the news, Mu Sheng hastily retreated but was also defeated by the rebels who pursued him.
The complete annihilation of the two relief armies marked the end of the Ming's efforts to regain control of Jiaozhi. Wang Tong was forced to surrender and allowed to withdraw his troops safely back to China, in accordance with the agreement made at the Đông Quan oath. After the victory, Lê Lợi ordered the scholar Nguyễn Trãi to write the Bình Ngô đại cáo, announcing the restoration of autonomy to the Viet people after two decades of Ming rule. Lê Lợi ascended to the throne, founding the Later Lê dynasty that lasted for nearly 400 years.
The Lam Sơn uprising was a rebellion against Ming China led by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi. The uprising began in early 1418 and ended in late 1427 with the victory of the Lam Sơn rebels, the retreat of the Ming army after the Đông Quan oath, and the establishment of the Later Lê dynasty.
In 1407, the Ming dynasty annexed the entire territory of Đại Ngu, the short-lived state ruled by the Hồ dynasty in what is now northern Vietnam and established the province of Jiaozhi. Their rule was met with resistance from the Viet people due to the Yongle Emperor's vigorous Sinicization policy, which aimed to assimilate the Viet. This policy caused widespread dissatisfaction and led to a series of uprisings across Jiaozhi, both large and small. After suppressing these uprisings, the Ming dynasty's rule became more stable than ever, but in some areas, there remained a latent risk of rebellion, particularly in the mountainous region of Thanh-Nghệ (modern Thanh Hóa and Nghệ An provinces), where the people were not willing to submit like those in the Kinh lộ region (the lowland Red River Delta).
In 1418, Lê Lợi raised an army in Lam Sơn, a rural mountainous area in today's Thanh Hóa province. In the early stages, the Lam Sơn rebels faced many difficulties, often only putting up weak resistance and suffering heavy losses against the Ming army's suppressing campaigns. The turning point occurred when Lê Lợi followed Nguyễn Chích's plan, advancing to liberate Nghệ An—a province in north-central Vietnam—in 1424 and using it as a base to strike out at other locations. After numerous clashes with the Ming army, the Lam Sơn rebels gained control of most of the territory from Thanh Hóa to Thuận Hóa (central Vietnam), tightening the siege on cities that had not yet surrendered. In 1426, with a strengthened army, Lê Lợi gradually mobilized his troops to the north. Utilizing the principle of "avoiding the strong and attacking the weak" and a strategy of mobility, the Lam Sơn army gradually forced the Ming troops to consolidate and defend important citadels. The decisive victory over the overwhelming Ming forces, led by Wang Tong, in the Tốt Động – Chúc Động campaign (near today's Hanoi), allowed the Lam Sơn rebels to gain the support of the majority of the Kinh lộ population, who had previously been intimidated by the might of the Ming. With strong support from the people, the Lam Sơn rebels shifted to the offensive, forcing the Ming troops to take refuge in their citadels and await reinforcements.
Taking advantage of the Ming army's low morale after consecutive defeats, Lê Lợi intensified enemy proselytizing and psychological warfare, using diplomatic measures to persuade besieged citadels to surrender. In a short period of time, most of the key citadels in northern Jiaozhi fell into the hands of the Lam Sơn rebels, either through surrender or siege. The Ming army only controlled two major strongholds, Đông Quan (the Ming administrative center in modern Hanoi) and Thanh Hóa, and a few smaller citadels, all of which were under strict siege and completely isolated. In 1427, in a final attempt to salvage the situation, the Xuande Emperor sent Liu Sheng and Mu Sheng with 110,000 troops divided into two routes to reinforce Wang Tong. However, the main force led by Liu Sheng was nearly completely annihilated by the Lam Sơn rebels in the Battle of Chi Lăng – Xương Giang, in present-day Lạng Sơn and Bắc Giang provinces. Liu Sheng himself, along with many other high-ranking generals, was killed in battle. Upon receiving the news, Mu Sheng hastily retreated but was also defeated by the rebels who pursued him.
The complete annihilation of the two relief armies marked the end of the Ming's efforts to regain control of Jiaozhi. Wang Tong was forced to surrender and allowed to withdraw his troops safely back to China, in accordance with the agreement made at the Đông Quan oath. After the victory, Lê Lợi ordered the scholar Nguyễn Trãi to write the Bình Ngô đại cáo, announcing the restoration of autonomy to the Viet people after two decades of Ming rule. Lê Lợi ascended to the throne, founding the Later Lê dynasty that lasted for nearly 400 years.
Background
Ming invasion
In the late 14th century, Đại Việt—a kingdom located in what is now northern Vietnam and ruled by the Trần dynasty—faced a profound crisis on multiple fronts. In addition to external factors such as the prolonged war with Champa (a kingdom in present-day central and southern Vietnam), natural disasters, epidemics, and crop failures, the economic, social, and political structures of Đại Việt were severely weakened. Intense conflicts arose between the aristocracy and the lower classes, as well as between the aristocracy and the bureaucratic-intellectual class, as they vied for power within the government. This crisis resulted in peasant uprisings, serf and slave revolts, and even religious movements, which posed a serious threat to the legitimacy of the Trần dynasty and weakened the central government. In addition to these factors, the succession of incompetent emperors after Trần Minh Tông created favorable conditions for the ambitious reformer Lê Quý Ly, an imperial in-law, to gradually seize supreme power and control the court.
In 1400, Lê Quý Ly usurped the Trần dynasty and changed his surname to Hồ, establishing the Hồ dynasty and renaming the country "Đại Ngu". The following year, he abdicated the throne to his second son Hồ Hán Thương and became retired emperor, though he still held power over government affairs. Prior to usurping the Trần dynasty, Hồ Quý Ly had already implemented numerous radical reforms. These included replacing traditional copper coins with low-quality paper money, relocating the capital from Thăng Long (modern Hanoi) to Tây Đô citadel in Thanh Hóa, and making significant changes to the political and social systems. These reforms not only failed to address the class and internal conflicts that had arisen since the end of the Trần dynasty, but also infringed upon the interests of various classes, leading to dissatisfaction among the people.
On the Chinese side, the Hongwu Emperor, founder of the Ming dynasty, established a "Sinocentric order" based on the tributary system, which viewed Annam (the Chinese term for Đại Việt) and other neighboring states as falling under the category of "countries to not be invaded". He left behind instructions for his successors, advising against conquering distant lands as they brought no economic benefit to China. His son, the Yongle Emperor, who seized the throne from his nephew the Jianwen Emperor during the Jingnan campaign, had a different perspective. He demonstrated a desire for hegemony by launching territorial expansions, following the examples of the Han, Tang, and Yuan dynasties. For the Yongle Emperor, the invasion of Đại Việt was not only a means of territorial expansion, but also a step towards maritime dominance, as evidenced by Zheng He's voyages to the Western Ocean. He believed that annexing Annam would further consolidate China's prestige in Southeast Asia. Additionally, the Yongle Emperor faced opposition and doubts about his legitimacy after ascending to the throne. Launching a major military campaign may have been a way to divert domestic attention outward and assert his own capabilities.
After overthrowing the Trần dynasty, the relationship between the Hồ dynasty and the Ming dynasty became tense. This was mainly due to land disputes in the border regions and the war between Đại Ngu and Champa. The Ming court was concerned about this war as they considered the area to be within their sphere of influence and wanted to maintain their dominance in the region. Although the relationship between the two countries was somewhat eased after the border conflict was resolved and Hồ Hán Thương was conferred the title of "King of Annam" by the Ming, it was short-lived. In October 1404, a figure named Trần Thiêm Bình appeared in Nanjing, claiming to be the son of Trần Nghệ Tông and presenting the usurpation of the Hồ clan to the Yongle Emperor. Although there were doubts about Trần Thiêm Bình's true identity, under pressure from the Ming court, Hồ Quý Ly and his son were forced to compromise and agreed to bring him back to the country to be emperor. In January 1406, the Yongle Emperor ordered 5,000 troops to escort Thiêm Bình back to his country. They were ambushed by the Hồ forces, and Trần Thiêm Bình was captured and executed. This action escalated the tension between Đại Ngu and the Ming to an extreme level.
Enraged by the "treacherous" act, the Yongle Emperor made the decision to send additional troops to Annam in order to punish Hồ Quý Ly and his son. In November 1406, under the guise of "supporting the Trần and destroying the Hồ," two generals, Zhang Fu and Mu Sheng, led a force of 225,000 soldiers to attack Đại Ngu. With their overwhelming numbers, the Ming army easily broke through the Hồ's defensive lines, forcing Hồ Quý Ly to flee to Tây Đô. The Ming army utilized gunpowder and employed new tactics, previously used in the pacification campaign of Yunnan, to combat Hồ Quý Ly's war elephant forces. Furthermore, the loss of popular support and critical errors in military organization weakened the resistance of the Hồ dynasty, leading to their swift defeat. In June 1407, both Hồ Quý Ly and his son Hồ Hán Thương were captured alive by the Ming army, marking the end of the Hồ dynasty after only seven years of existence.
Ming rule
The Yongle Emperor, along with other influential figures in the court, such as Zhang Fu, advocated for the annexation of Annam into the Ming dynasty instead of restoring the throne to the Trần royal family. At the time, the Han people did not view Annam as a tributary state, but rather as a "historical territory" that had once belonged to China and needed to be reclaimed, as it had been during the Han and Tang dynasties. As a result, even before capturing Hồ Quý Ly and his son, the Ming court had already set its sights on incorporating Annam back into China. They took advantage of the fact that many Viet officials and elders actively requested to become imperial province of the Ming dynasty, as the Trần family had no heirs. This led to the annexation of the entire territory of the former Đại Ngu and the establishment of the Jiaozhi Province.
To stabilize their rule, the Ming dynasty implemented a divide and conquer policy, appointing Viet officials to govern the Viet people. Those who submitted were promised protection of their property and lives, as well as titles, land, and wealth. However, the Ming government went beyond political stabilization and also attempted to alter the local social and cultural structure. In an effort to assimilate, the Ming dynasty imposed Chinese cultural norms, such as changes in clothing, the construction of Confucian temples, and the adoption of Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism as the political and ethical standard. These measures aimed to replace the traditional Confucian ideology of the Vietnamese during the Trần dynasty. These policies caused significant divisions among the Viet classes, particularly within the intellectual class. Some scholar-officials, who may have been motivated by a sense of Viet solidarity or by personal loyalty to the Hồ or Trần dynasties, chose to retreat into seclusion, while the majority opted to serve the Ming dynasty in exchange for fame and power.
The elite in the Red River Delta and southern coastal regions (collectively known as the Kinh lộ people) were more likely to support the Ming government, while those in the midland and mountainous areas (known as the Trại people) tended to oppose it. According to historian Keith W. Taylor, this difference can be attributed to the level of Sinicization: the Kinh lộ people, heavily influenced by Chinese culture, saw cooperation with the Northern court as beneficial, while the Trại did not. Victor Lieberman also noted that the Trại maintained a free lifestyle and were less influenced by Chinese culture, but were known for their strong fighting spirit. Additionally, the scholar-officials in the Red River Delta did not accept Hồ Quý Ly's usurpation of the Trần dynasty's throne and his decision to move the capital from Thăng Long to Thanh Hóa. When the Ming army advanced, Hồ Quý Ly abandoned most of the Kinh lộ region instead of defending it, causing him to lose the loyalty of the people there.
After taking power, the leading officials of Jiaozhi, particularly Huang Fu and his exceptional associates, worked diligently to establish an efficient governance system. They implemented various policies with the goal of stabilizing the situation and improving the lives of the people. These policies included measures such as taxation reforms, administrative improvements, and efforts to stabilize agricultural production. Despite these efforts, corruption within the local government and the haughty behavior of some Han officials, who saw themselves as symbols of civilized behavior, caused dissatisfaction among the populace. Nevertheless, according to Keith W. Taylor, there is no clear evidence that the Ming administration in Jiaozhi was more corrupt or oppressive than the indigenous Viet regimes that preceded or succeeded it. He argues that the local population's anti-Ming sentiment would have gradually faded over time, but such a scenario would have been possible only if the Ming had been genuinely determined to maintain their rule over Jiaozhi for a sufficiently long period.
The dissatisfaction among the people of Jiaozhi eventually reached a boiling point, resulting in numerous uprisings, both large and small. One of the most significant uprisings occurred in the autumn of 1407, led by the Later Trần emperors, the royal family, and former generals of the Trần dynasty. Despite facing initial challenges, the Later Trần army managed to achieve victories against the main forces of Mu Sheng at Bô Cô, located in present-day Nam Định province in the Red River Delta, in December 1408, gaining control over territory extending northward from Nghệ An, a province in north-central Vietnam, into the Red River Delta heartland. The internal affairs of the Later Trần army quickly fell into disarray, causing the rebel forces to lose their momentum and weaken under the strong attacks from the Ming army. This ultimately led to a complete defeat in 1414.
After the Later Trần dynasty was defeated, the security situation in Jiaozhi improved. There were still some areas that experienced resistance, but these uprisings were mostly fragmented, spontaneous, and local. They did not pose a significant threat to the Ming army and quickly dissipated. This period of stability did not last long. In 1417, another major wave of uprisings erupted in Jiaozhi, coinciding with the construction of the new capital in Beijing and the development of Zheng He's maritime fleet. According to American historian Edward Dreyer, the construction and shipbuilding required a large amount of manpower and resources, particularly high-quality wood, which was in short supply within China. In response, Ming officials, led by eunuch Ma Ji, increased taxes and intensified resource exploitation, causing dissatisfaction among the people and even the Viet officials. In February 1417, Li Bin was appointed to Jiaozhi to replace Zhang Fu, but the situation did not improve. By the end of that year, many Viet people, including former Ming officials, rose up against the colonial government.