The Han–Xiongnu wars or Sino–Xiongnu wars, were a series of military conflicts fought from 133 BC to 89 AD between the agrarian Chinese Han dynasty and the nomadic pastoralist Xiongnu confederacy, although extended conflicts can be traced back as early as 200 BC and as late as 188 AD.
The Chinese civilization initially clashed with the Inner Asian steppe nomad tribes (then collectively known as Di) that would later become the Xiongnu during the Warring States period, and various northern states built elongated fortifications (which later became the Great Wall of China) to defend against raids down from the Mongolian Plateau. The unified Qin dynasty, who conquered all other states under Qin Shi Huang, dispatched Meng Tian in 215 BC in a successful campaign to expel the Xiongnu from the Ordos region (which was often used as a staging area to threaten Qin's Guanzhong heartland). However, the subsequent civil war following the Qin dynasty's collapse gave the Xiongnu confederacy, which were then unified into a large nomadic empire under Modu Chanyu, the opportunity to reinvade the Ordos region. After the Han dynasty was established in 202 BC, Emperor Gaozu tried to fight off Xiongnu invasions but had himself trapped in an ambush during the Battle of Baideng, and a truce was negotiated by bribing Modu's wife, thus ending the first Han–Xiongnu conflict. Decades of de jure peace then followed with the Chinese implementing marriage alliances to appease the Xiongnu, who still routinely raided Chinese borderlands.
However, starting from the reign of the seventh Han sovereign, Emperor Wu, the foreign policy of the Han dynasty began to change from being relatively passive to using a proactive strategy seeking to permanently remove the northern threat. The tension fully escalated in 133 BC when the Han army unsuccessfully tried to ambush Xiongnu raiders at Mayi, and retaliatory border raids intensified. Emperor Wu then started deploying younger generations of offensive military commanders such as Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, and launched several victorious expeditions to control the Ordos Plateau, Hexi Corridor and Western Regions, eventually pushing the Xiongnu north beyond the Gobi Desert with a decisive campaign in 119 BC. After the death of Emperor Wu in 87 BC, the conflict de-escalated to mostly small border conflicts, although Emperor Xuan and Emperor Yuan each sanctioned major offensives against the Xiongnu during their reigns. The overall strategic Han successes against the Xiongnu allowed the Chinese to project their influence deep into Central Asia, which eventually led to the establishment of a regional protectorate in 60 BC. For the Xiongnu, the situation deteriorated with each setback, leading to erosion of the chanyu's prestige among the steppe tribes, and the subsequent internal power struggles further weakened the nomadic confederacy, fracturing it into various self-ruling factions. The Han dynasty then adhered to a divide and conquer strategy, continuing to use marriage alliances (such as that of Wang Zhaojun to Huhanye) to recruit some against others.
During the interregnum Xin dynasty, Wuzhuliu Chanyu waged war in 11 AD after Wang Mang, a consort kin who usurped the Western Han throne, attempted to split the Xiongnu by installing 15 new chanyu. Wang Mang mobilized 300,000 troops against Xiongnu and forced Goguryeo, Wuhuan and various Western Regions city-states to send conscripts and provisions, which led to the mass defection of these vassal states. After the Eastern Han dynasty was established in 25 AD, the Chinese initially found their hands full after the chaotic civil war and could not afford any full-scale mobilizations against the Xiongnu raids; they therefore resorted to continue lobbying amongst Xiongnu faction rulers instead. This went on for another two decades until 46 AD, when repeated natural disasters severely weakened the Xiongnu and forced them to flee north from an attack by Wuhuan. The Xiongnu then permanently split into two groups in 48 AD, becoming the Northern and Southern Xiongnu. The Southern Xiongnu submitted as vassals to the Han dynasty, and served as auxiliaries in Han wars against the Northern Xiongnu and other hostile Donghu states like the Xianbei. The Northern Xiongnu continued to resist the Han and were eventually evicted westwards by further Han expeditions. In 89 AD, Dou Xian led 50,000 cavalry on an expedition that decisively defeated the Northern Xiongnu's main force, causing it to split further. In 91 AD, Northern Chanyu was defeated in the Battle of the Altai Mountains, and they fled west into Dzungaria, where they continued causing sporadic troubles until 151 AD when a 4,000-strong Han militia was enough to defeat them, causing them to flee further west into Central Asia where they disappeared from historical records. The Southern Xiongnu continued to be vassals of the Eastern Han, though they occasionally launched revolts until as late as the Yellow Turban Rebellion era. Nonetheless, by 89 AD onwards, the Han dynasty's main concern had already switched to the Qiang people, who had become a bigger threat than the Xiongnu.
Background
During the Warring States period, the Qin, Zhao, and Yan states conquered various nomadic territories inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples. They strengthened their new frontiers with elongated wall fortifications. By 221 BC, the Qin ended the chaotic Eastern Zhou period by conquering all other states and unifying China proper. In 215 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered Meng Tian to set out against the Xiongnu tribes situated in the Ordos region and establish a frontier at the Ordos Loop. Believing the Xiongnu were a possible threat, the emperor launched this pre-emptive strike, also with the intention of expanding his empire. Later that year, Meng Tian succeeded in defeating the Xiongnu and seizing their territory. After the catastrophic defeat at the hands of Meng, Touman Chanyu and his followers fled far into the Mongolian Plateau. Fusu and Meng Tian were stationed at a garrison in Suide and soon began the construction of walled defences, connecting them with the old walls built by the Qin, Yan and Zhao states. The fortified walls ran from Liaodong to Lintao, thus enclosing the conquered Ordos region and safeguarding the Qin dynasty against the Xiongnu and other northern nomadic people. Due to the northward expansion, the threat that the Qin posed to the Xiongnu ultimately led the many tribes towards the formation of a confederacy.
However, after Qin Shi Huang's sudden death, the ensuing political corruption and chaos during the short reign of Qin Er Shi led to various anti-Qin rebellions, eventually bringing about the collapse of the Qin dynasty. A massive civil war then erupted between various reinstated states, with Liu Bang ultimately being victorious and establishing the Han dynasty. During the transitional years between Qin and Han, while the Chinese were mainly focused towards the interior of their nation, the Xiongnu took the opportunity to retake the territory north of the wall. The Xiongnu frequently led incursions to the Han frontier and had considerable political influence over the border regions. In response, Emperor Gaozu led an army against the Xiongnu in 200 BC, pursuing them as far as Pingcheng (present-day Datong, Shanxi) before being ambushed by Modu Chanyu's cavalry. His encampment was encircled by the Xiongnu, but he escaped after seven days. After realizing that a military solution was not feasible for the time being, Emperor Gaozu sent Liu Jing to negotiate peace with Modu Chanyu. In 198 BC, a marriage alliance was concluded between the Han and the Xiongnu, but this proved far from effective as the incursions in the border regions continued.
Course
Onset
By the reign of Emperor Wu, the Han empire was prospering and the national treasury had accumulated large surpluses. However, burdened by the frequent Xiongnu raids on the frontier, the emperor abandoned the policies of his predecessors of maintaining peace with the Xiongnu early in his reign. In 136 BC, after continued Xiongnu incursions near the northern frontier, Emperor Wu had a court conference assembled. The faction supporting war against the Xiongnu was able to sway the majority opinion by making a compromise for those worried about stretching financial resources on an indefinite campaign: in an engagement along the border near Mayi, Han forces would lure Junchen Chanyu over with wealth and promises of defections to eliminate him and cause political chaos for the Xiongnu. Emperor Wu launched his military campaigns against the Xiongnu in 133 BC.
In 133 BC, the Xiongnu forces led by the Chanyu were lured into a trap at Mayi, while a Han army of about 300,000 troops laid in ambush against the Xiongnu. Wang Hui led this campaign and commanded a force of 30,000 men strong, advancing from Dai with the intention of attacking the Xiongnu supply route. Han Anguo and Gongsun He commanded the remaining forces and advanced towards Mayi. Junchen Chanyu led his army of 100,000 men towards Mayi, but he became increasingly suspicious of the situation. When the ambush failed, because Junchen Chanyu realized he was about to fall into a trap and fled back north, the peace was broken and the Han court resolved to engage in full-scale war. In light of this battle, the Xiongnu became aware of the Han court's intentions to go to war. By that point the Han empire was long consolidated politically, militarily, and economically, and was led by an increasingly pro-war faction in the imperial court.
Skirmishes at the northern frontier
In late 129 BC, a Han force of 40,000 cavalrymen launched a surprise attack against the Xiongnu in the frontier markets, where masses of Xiongnu people visited to trade. In 128 BC, General Wei Qing led 30,000 men to battle in the regions north of Yanmen and came out victorious. The next year, the Xiongnu invaded Liaoxi, killing its governor, and advanced towards Yanmen. Han Anguo mobilized 700 men, but was defeated and withdrew to Yuyang. Thereafter, Wei Qing moved out with a force and captured some Xiongnu troops, causing the main force of the Xiongnu to withdraw. Meanwhile, Li Xi led a force across the frontier and also captured some of the Xiongnu troops.
Early campaigns by the Han empire
Between 127 and 119 BC, Emperor Wu ordered the generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing to lead several large-scale military campaigns against the Xiongnu. Leading campaigns involving tens of thousands of troops, General Wei Qing captured the Ordos Desert region from the Xiongnu in 127 BC and General Huo Qubing expelled them from the Qilian Mountains in 121 BC, with many Xiongnu aristocrats surrendering. The Han court also sent expeditions, ranging to over 100,000 troops, into Mongolia in 124 BC, 123 BC, and 119 BC, attacking the heart of Xiongnu territory. Following the successes of these campaigns, Emperor Wu wrote edicts in which he heavily praised the two generals for their achievements.
Ordos Loop
In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded and retook full control of the Ordos region. Earlier that year, he had departed from Yunzhong towards Longxi to invade the Xiongnu in Ordos. After the conquest, about 100,000 people resettled in the Ordos. Two commanderies were established in the region; Wuyuan and Shuofang. With the old Qin walled fortifications under their control, the Han set out to repair and extend the walls. In 126 BC, the Xiongnu sent out three forces of 30,000 troops each to raid Dai, Dinxiang, and Shang. That year, General Wei Qing advanced from Gaoque into Mongolia with 30,000 men and defeated the Xiongnu forces of the Tuqi King and captured 15,000 men along with 10 tribal chiefs. In late 126 BC, the Xiongnu raided Dai once again; they took some prisoners and killed a Han military commander.
Southern Gobi Desert
In early 123 BC, General Wei Qing set off to Mongolia with an army to attack the Xiongnu; they marched back victorious to Dingxiang. Two months later, the Han army advanced towards the Xiongnu again, but this time the Xiongnu were prepared for the invasion. However, hereafter, due to the military expeditions of the Han empire, the Xiongnu moved their capital and retreated to the far northern regions of the Gobi Desert.
Hexi Corridor
In the Battle of Hexi (121 BC), the Han forces inflicted a major defeat to the Xiongnu. Emperor Wu desired to place firm control over the Hexi Corridor and launched a large military offensive to purge the Xiongnu from the area. The campaign was undertaken in 121 BC by the young general Huo Qubing, who was a nephew-in-law of Emperor Wu. Departing from Longxi that year, General Huo Qubing led cavalry corps and fought through five Xiongnu kingdoms, seizing the Yanzhi and Qilian Mountains from the Xiongnu.
In early 121 BC, Huo set out from Longxi and advanced into the territory of the Xiutu King, beyond the Yanzhi Mountains. About 18,000 Xiongnu cavalry were captured or killed.
In mid 121 BC, Huo advanced into the Anshan Desert to invade the Qilian Mountains. At the Qilian Mountains, the Hunye King saw the deaths of over 30,000 troops in battle against the Han, while 2,800 of his troops were captured.
Distraught by the huge losses and fearing the wrath of the Xiongnu Chanyu, the Xiutu King and the Hunye King planned to surrender to the Han dynasty. However, the Xiutu King suddenly changed his mind and wanted to flee back to the Chanyu's side, and the Hunye King killed him and assumed command of the Xiutu forces. When the Xiongnu forces went to meet Huo Qubing for the surrender, the Xiutu forces rioted in mutiny. Uncertain of the situation on the opposing side, Huo personally rode into Hunye King's camp and ordered him to maintain discipline among his own tribesmen, before quelling and killing 8,000 Xiutu troops who refused to stand down. In the end, the Hunye King and his 40,000 tribal soldiers surrendered peacefully, which led to the Hexi Corridor being permanently annexed by the Han empire.
Now having conquered a strategic territory stretching from Longxi to Lop Nur, the Han empire effectively cut off the Xiongnu from their Qiang allies in the Tibetan Plateau. In 111 BC, a major Qiang–Xiongnu allied force was repelled from the Hexi Corridor. Hereafter, four new commanderies were established in the Hexi Corridor, namely Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan and Dunhuang, which were populated with Han soldier settlers.
Northern Gobi Desert
The Battle of Mobei (119 BC) saw Han forces invade the northern Gobi Desert, as well as areas north of the Gobi. In 119 BC, two separate expeditionary forces led by the Han generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing mobilized towards the Xiongnu. The two generals led the campaign to the Khangai Mountains and the Orkhon Valley, where they forced the Chanyu to flee north of the Gobi Desert. The two forces together comprised 100,000 cavalrymen, 140,000 horses, and a few hundred thousand infantry. They advanced into the desert in pursuit of the main force of the Xiongnu. The campaign was a major victory for the Han against Xiongnu, as the Xiongnu were driven from the Gobi Desert. The Xiongnu casualties ranged from 80 to 90 thousand troops, while the Han casualties ranged from 20 to 30 thousand troops. The Han forces had also lost around 100,000 horses during the campaign.
During this campaign, Huo Qubing's elite troops had set off from Dai to link up with Lu Bode's forces in Yucheng, after which they advanced further and engaged the Tuqi King of the Left and his army. Huo Qubing's army encircled and overran their enemy, killing around 70,000 Xiongnu, including the Tuqi King of the Left. He then went on to conduct a series of rituals upon arrival at the Khentii Mountains to symbolize the historic Han victory, then continued his pursuit as far as Lake Baikal.
Wei Qing's army, setting off from Dingxiang, encountered Yizhixie Chanyu's army. Wei Qing ordered his troops to arrange heavy-armoured chariots in a ring formation, creating mobile fortresses that provided archers, crossbowmen, and infantry protection from the Xiongnu's cavalry charges, and allowing the Han troops to utilize their ranged weapons' advantages. A 5,000-strong cavalry was deployed to reinforce the array against any Xiongnu attack. The Xiongnu charged the Han forces with a 10,000-strong vanguard cavalry. The battle solidified into a stalemate until dusk, when a sandstorm obscured the battlefield. Subsequently, Wei Qing sent in his main forces and overwhelmed the Xiongnu. The Han cavalry used the low visibility as cover and encircled the Xiongnu army from both flanks, but Yizhixie Chanyu and a contingent of troops broke through and escaped.