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Founding
Founding of Maravi
kingdom which straddled the current borders of Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia, from the 15th to the 19th century
- 1480
- Sub-Saharan Africa
Founding
kingdom which straddled the current borders of Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia, from the 15th to the 19th century
Fetching the article from Wikipedia…
The Maravi Empire or Maravi Confederacy was a Chewa polity that controlled what is now central and southern Malawi, parts of Mozambique, and eastern Zambia, from at least the early 15th century to the mid-19th century. In the 17th century, the empire extended westwards to the Luangwa River, northwards to Nkhotakota, and southwards to the Zambezi, with its influence stretching eastwards to Mozambique Island and Quelimane.
The Chewa migrated from Katanga in modern-day DR Congo to Malawi. The Banda clan and other smaller clans arrived in Malawi first in the 12th or 13th century, and are termed the Pre-Maravi. The Phiri clan adopted kingship and were led by the Kalonga (king), and arrived in Malawi later; they are termed the Maravi. After reaching Msinja, the Maravi integrated the Pre-Maravi's sociopolitical organisation. As the Maravi continued their migration, two relatives of the Kalonga, Kaphiti and Lundu, left following a succession dispute to establish their own kingdoms. The Maravi state expanded through the Kalonga sending relatives to found new subordinate polities. After the Maravi settled at Mankhamba, another succession dispute caused Undi to leave and establish his own kingdom, accompanied by the royal family and Nyangu. Lundu allied with the Zimba, a militaristic group which fought the Portuguese, in the late-16th century. In the 17th century, Kalonga Muzura expanded the empire and conquered Lundu's polity, however failed to expel the Portuguese from the region. In the 18th century, the system of succession broke down as a long-term consequence of Nyangu and the royal family's separation from the Kalonga in Mankhamba, leading to internal conflict and disintegration. This was exacerbated in the 19th century by frequent slave raiding from Yao chiefs, culminating in the death of the last Kalonga, Sosola, in battle in the late 1860s. The Chewa Royal Establishment, a non-sovereign monarchy centred in eastern Zambia, claims continuation of Undi's dynasty.
The empire was headed by the Kalonga, with other leaders paying tribute, often in the form of ivory. Titles were governed by the institutions of positional succession and perpetual kinship. Various Chewa religious institutions were utilised to foster unity in the state, such as the Mlira ceremony, which involved royal family heads convening on the capital to venerate the spirit of the Kalonga that led the Maravi's migration. The head of the Phiri clan was the mother or sister of the Kalonga, holding the title of Nyangu, from which successors to the kingship had to descend. While the Kalonga held secular authority, the Makewana priestess, as head of the Banda clan and of the Pre-Maravi, held ritual authority. The Makewana was in charge of the rainmaking shrine at Kaphirintiwa Hill. The economy consisted of both arable and pastoral agriculture. Linkage to both African and Indian Ocean long-distance trade facilitated the export of cloth and iron tools and import of glass beads and copper.
The name Maravi is a Portuguese derivation on the word Malawi, which the Chewa had used to refer to themselves. In the Chewa language, malaŵí means "flames". According to Samuel Josia Ntara's Mbiri ya Achewa (1944/5), Malawi referred to an area along Lake Malawi where a Chewa king and his people settled long ago. Chewa tradition says that Lake Malawi looked like flames or a mirage when they first saw it from the highlands. Subsequently, the land between Lake Malombe and the Linthipe River was called Malawi, and they referred to themselves as Amalawi.
The Chewa have two different traditions of origin. The first holds that Chiuta (God) created the Chewa and animals at Kaphirintiwa Hill, where there are patterns in the rock that resemble human and animal footprints. Thus, it holds that the Chewa have always inhabited their present homeland. The second is in agreement with the most widely accepted models of the Bantu expansion, where most Chewa traditions hold that they migrated to modern-day Malawi from Uluwa in Katanga (a region to the northwest). They are associated with Naviundu pottery in Katanga dated to the 4th century CE. The Banda clan and other smaller clans arrived in Malawi first, while the Phiri clan migrated later. Scholars use the term Maravi to refer to the Phiri, and Pre-Maravi to refer to the Banda and others (traditionally called Kalimanjira, "path-finders"). Both groups are thought to have left Katanga around the 11th century.
The Pre-Maravi reached Malawi between the 12th and 14th centuries. According to tradition, they found a pygmy people called Akafula (the local Twa) against whom they fought a battle (near Mankhamba) and drove south across the Zambezi River. They are said to have also met agriculturalists, called the Katanga, Pule, or Lenda, with archaeological research indicating Malawi was inhabited by agriculturalists from the 3rd century CE. This group likely intermarried with the Chewa and was absorbed. The Pre-Maravi settled at Msinja, below the Dzalanyama range and near Kaphirintiwa Hill which—likely following the discovery of the patterns of footprints—became the society's ritual centre with a kachisi (rainmaking shrine). Msinja had high-quality soil and lots of water for agriculture. The Makewana (also called Mangadzi), head of the Banda clan and priestess, held the most authority. Scholars such as Jan Vansina have characterised the Pre-Maravi as a state with Makewana as leader. The Makewana appointed Matsano (spirit wives) to hill-top shrines, of which there was a hierarchy, with the Makewana's Kaphirintiwa shrine considered the "mother" of shrines. While these figures specialised in ritual authority, they also held substantial secular authority, although Kamundi (of the Mbewe clan and partner to Makewana) likely de facto held secular leadership. Engagement with the Indian Ocean trade likely began around the 13th century through the Lake Malawi–Lake Tanganyika corridor, with the main export being ivory.
Tradition says that the Maravi stopped at various places in search for a place to settle. One of these was called Choma, which may refer to a river in Zambia flowing into Lake Mweru which the first Kalonga (king) and his people were said to have crossed, a mountain in Mzimba District (thought to have a burial site of a Kalonga), or a place in southern Zambia. Clan names are said to have been created there, although Yusuf Juwayeyi says that given how essential they are to Chewa society this is unlikely. Prior to this settlement, the Maravi are said to have had the same female ritual leadership as the Pre-Maravi. According to tradition, they met an Arab trader named "Hasan Bin Ali" (possibly Sultan al-Hassan ibn Suliman of Kilwa who reigned in the 14th century, or representatives of him) who convinced them to have him as their first king. However, he died before he could be initiated, interpreted as divine intervention against enthroning a foreigner. Instead, Chinkhole, a local, was appointed the first Kalonga, and religiosity shifted to the veneration of rulers. Chinkhole's mother or sister, Nyangu, was head of the Phiri clan. Possibly due to lack of land for their growing population, the Maravi left Choma. Another stop was Chewa Hill, from which they are said to have derived their endonym (though scholars have alternative theories on the word's origin). Juwayeyi writes that "it is not possible to figure out from oral traditions how long the Maravi were on the road before they arrived at [their final destination], and neither can it really be confirmed how many Kalongas led them".
Tradition continues with the Maravi finally reaching Msinja, where they met the Pre-Maravi, led by the Makewana. As invaders, the Kalonga aimed to destroy the Pre-Maravi's political organisation by attacking the shrine on Kaphirintiwa Hill, but the shrine was difficult to reach and fiercely defended. In his defeat, the Kalonga accepted the Makewana's ritual authority, taking her secular authority, and it was established that the Banda clan would provide the Kalonga's principal wife (titled Mwali). The Pre-Maravi's socio-political organisation was incorporated into the Maravi state. Possibly due to concerns about causing friction with the Pre-Maravi, the Maravi continued their migration, stopping at Mawere a Nyangu for a long time. A dispute arose around the practise of dark magic, and the poison mwavi was distributed in order to kill the culprit, but many innocent people died. Two relatives of the Kalonga, Kaphiti and Lundu, were thought to be the culprits, which caused a dispute between Changamire (the Kalonga's brother) and Kaphiti. Possibly after a succession dispute, Kaphiti and Lundu broke away to the south to establish their own kingdoms. The Kalonga sent Changamire south to expand the state and found new settlements, as he intended to migrate north. After their population outgrew the land at Mawere a Nyangu, they finally moved onto Msangu wa Machete, which was near the Nadzipulu River (in Dedza District) and Lake Malawi. According to Ntara's Mbiri ya Achewa, the Banda built their village called Mankhamba and the Phiri built theirs called Malawi. Archaeological research indicates that Mankhamba was settled (likely by the Pre-Maravi) between the 12th and 14th centuries, and the Maravi were very likely present there from at least the mid-15th century due to evidence of long-distance trade. Juwayeyi considers Mankhamba to have been Kalonga's capital; however, Kings M. Phiri thought it to have been Manthimba. The area southwest of Lake Malawi became the new homeland of the Maravi.
The empire was expanded with the Kalonga sending his sons and family members to found new tributary polities and giving them emblems of office (such as an iron stool), as he had done with Changamire to present-day Ntcheu District, whose polity became relatively powerful. Juwayeyi mentions Chidzonzi as the successor of Chinkhole, and says that he led the Maravi out of Choma. K. M. Phiri wrote that Chidzonzi was the Kalonga when Undi, Kalonga's brother, broke away unilaterally, and was the best-known out of the Kalongas for his founding of various institutions, such as the Mlira cult. The first Undi's departure was reportedly due to a succession dispute, while other traditions attribute it to his distaste of Mankhamba or a dispute with the new Kalonga around dinner customs (a clash between political seniority and familial seniority). In the succession dispute, Undi had the support of most of the royal family but not the counsellors (new Kalongas had to be of the Phiri clan and descendants of Nyangu, and approved by counsellors). When Undi left, most of the royal family followed, including the Nyangu. He stopped at Msinja before settling at Mano (in modern-day Tete Province, Mozambique). The Nyangu's accompaniment meant Undi could nominate succession candidates. At Mankhamba, Mwali's role became more significant, giving Kalonga's counsellors (who were all Banda) more power. At Mano, Undi expanded his influence towards Msinja, to such levels he could also appoint the Makewana's successors, and his authority reached as far as the Luangwa River in the 17th century. His forces are said to have conquered the eastern Nsenga; however, their oral traditions have no memory of this, and it is possible they were vassals. Chulu was either a son of the Kalonga and was sent north or left Undi during his migration, and settled in the southern Tumbuka lands of Chimaliro (in modern-day Kasungu District). By the end of the 17th century, Chulu had declined and been replaced by Mwase, traditionally an elephant hunter who had rid the community of dangerous animals and ended local conflicts.
A son of Kalonga, Mkadzula of the Mwale clan, left Mankhamba to settle in the Tonga lands (modern-day Salima District) and bore the title Kanyenda. He was initially accompanied with Kabunduli, who split from Mkadzula at Nkhotakota and is said to have united various Tonga groups under his control. Traditions on Mkanda Mbewe, possibly another son of Kalonga, differ, likely influenced by interactions with invaders in the 19th century. The first tradition says Mkanda was more important than Undi, saying that Undi walked while Mkanda was carried in a hammock, though other traditions say this was because of an injury. Some traditions say Mkanda was sent to Bunda, and later Kasungu. Accordingly, he left after a dispute with Mwase and settled in Mchinji after defeating Akafula warriors, only making contact with Undi after. However, traditions from Undi's area say Mkanda was sent to Mchinji by Undi, only becoming independent later. The Kalonga's power and wealth grew as relatives sent ivory as tribute, which was processed at Mankhamba.
The first Kaphiti and first Lundu had settled southwest either near Utale or the Wankurumadzi River (in modern-day Mwanza and Neno districts), coming to rule over the Chipeta (regional proto-Chewa) there. Kaphiti grew powerful, extending over the Lower Shire Valley, the Shire Highlands, Mulanje, and areas in modern-day Mozambique. Later, Lundu left to establish his own kingdom further south at Mbewe near Chiromo. Supported by the rainmaking cult of Mbona and controlling the Mbona shrine at Nsanje, his power grew to eclipse that of Kaphiti (who had disappeared by the 16th century) owing to wealth accumulated from trade along the Zambezi, and he extended his influence over the Lower Zambezi Valley. Lundu allied with the Zimba and expanded eastwards into Makua and Lolo lands, and some Makua and Lolo headmen were made tributaries alongside Maravi chiefs. The Zimba went on to defeat the Portuguese in 1592 and 1593.
The Maravi engaged in trade both locally and in the wider Indian Ocean trade. Muzura was a Kalonga revered in Portuguese records; his identity has been debated. Undi had the choice of the Kalonga's successors, and, according to Juwayeyi, Muzura was originally part of the royalty at Mano. Portuguese reports say that he led workers on a settler's plantation and was a renowned hunter. He aided the Portuguese in defeating the rivals of the Mwenemutapa, Gatsi Rusere, in 1608. Juwayeyi says that Muzura had a second capital in the Mwanza–Neno region, closer to the Zambezi, where, in 1616, he provided hospitality to Portuguese traveller Gaspar Bocarro, who wrote the first historical account of Maravi. In 1622, Muzura defeated Lundu with the help of the Portuguese, becoming the undisputed ruler of the region. Under Muzura, trade flourished and the Maravi grew very wealthy. In 1629, Muzura allied with Mwenemutapa Kapararidze, Gatsi Rusere's successor, aiming to expel the Portuguese from Zambezia. However, Muzura's attack on Quelimane was unsuccessful. Portuguese records in 1635 described Muzura as cunning and very powerful, and he died in the 1640s.
Text from the Wikipedia article “Maravi”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.