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The Kingdom of Mrauk-U (Arakanese: မြောက်ဦး ဘုရင့်နိုင်ငံတော်) or Kingdom of Arakan was a kingdom that existed on the Arakan coastal plain from 1429 to 1785. Based in the capital Mrauk U, near the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, the kingdom ruled over what is now Rakhine State, Myanmar, and the southern part of Chittagong Division, Bangladesh. Though it started out as a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate from 1429 to 1531, Mrauk-U went on to conquer Chittagong with the help of the Portuguese. It twice fended off the Toungoo Burma's attempts to conquer the kingdom in 1546–1547, and 1580–1581. At its height of power, it briefly controlled the Bay of Bengal coastline from the Sundarbans to the Gulf of Martaban from 1599 to 1603. In 1666, it lost control of Chittagong after a war with the Mughal Empire. Its existence continued until 1785, when it was conquered by the Konbaung dynasty of Burma.
It was home to a multiethnic population, with the Buddhists making up the majority and the city of Mrauk U being home to temples, shrines, mosques, seminaries and libraries. The kingdom was also a center of piracy and the slave trade. It was frequented by Arab, Danish, Dutch and Portuguese traders.
Although Arakan kings paid tribute to the Pagan dynasty, the South was mostly free of Pagan suzerainty and largely cut off from the rest of Burma. Separated from Pagan by the Arakan Mountains, Arakan developed more independently to other Burmese regions. The capital moved from Thaibeiktaung to Dhanyawadi to Vesali before the 11th century, and then to Pyinsa, Parein, and Hkrit in the 12th century, with the capital moving to Pyinsa again in 1180, and then Launggyet in 1237.
Arakan had close contact with Bengal, coming into full contact with it as it was expanding eastwards. During the reign of King Min Hti of Arakan (1279–1374), Bengal invaded parts of Arakan sea, raiding the Hinya river at Chittagong. Following the collapse of Pagan power and the death of Min Hti, Arakan fell into an interregnum, and constant raids were conducted by both the Burmese and the Talaing. The new king who took power in 1404, Narameikhla, who was a great-grandson of Min Hti, was immediately ousted by the forces of the Burmese Crown Prince Minye Kyawswa, who captured Launggyet and forced Narameikhla to flee to the court of the Sultanate of Bengal at Gour. During Narameikhla's 24-year exile, Arakan became an extensive battleground for the Ava Kingdom and the Pegu Kingdom. The King of Ava installed his son-in-law on the throne of Arakan, bestowing him the title of Anoarahtâ. Pegu forces later captured and executed him. The power struggle ended with Razadarit coming out on top, capturing Taunggyet and installing his own governor, who was in power until 1423.
After 24 years of exile, Narameikhla regained control of the Arakanese throne in 1430 with military assistance from Bengali commanders Wali Khan and Sindhi Khan. The Bengalis who came with him formed their own settlements in the region. Narameikhla ceded some territory to the Sultan of Bengal and recognised his sovereignty over the areas. In recognition of his kingdom's vassal status, the kings of Arakan received Islamic titles, despite being Buddhists, and legalised the use of Islamic gold dinar coins from Bengal within the kingdom. They also employed Bengali Muslims in prestigious positions within the royal administration. Narameikhla minted his own, with Burmese characters on one side and Persian characters on the other. Despite ruling parts of Bengal, it continued to remain a protectorate of the Sultan of Bengal up until 1531.
Narameikhla founded the city of Mrauk U, which was declared the capital of the Arakanese kingdom in 1431. As the city grew, many Buddhist pagodas and temples were built. Several of them remain, and these are the main attraction of Mrauk-U. From the 15th to the 18th centuries, Mrauk U was the capital of the Arakan kingdom, frequently visited by foreign traders (including Portuguese and Dutch). The golden city of Mrauk U became known in Europe as a city of oriental splendor after Friar Sebastian Manrique visited the area in the early 17th century. Father Manrique wrote a vivid account of the coronation of King Thiri Thudhamma in 1635.
Narameikhla was succeeded by his brother, Min Khayi, who annexed Sandoway and Ramu in 1437. Min Khayi's successor, Ba Saw Phyu occupied Chittagong with the help of the Portuguese, at the beginning of his reign. Although Barbek Shah, the new Sultan of Bengal, allowed Bengal to falter, Arakan remained subordinate to Bengal until 1531.
In 1454, a treaty with Ava established the Rakhine Yoma mountain range's watershed as the political boundary between the two kingdoms, creating a status quo of mutual non-interference. As a result, opponents like the Changma raiders were no longer automatically pursued if they crossed into the other kingdom's territory. This agreement had facilitated the increased export of Shan ruby stones to India.
Ba Saw Phyu was succeeded by his son Dawlya, who launched a rebellion against him in 1482, taking his life. A line of weak kings followed. However, in 1531, Minbin took the throne, strengthening the fortifications of Mrauk U and fighting back against coastal raids by pirates. Minbin was responsible for the construction of the Shwedaung pagoda as well as the Shitthaung, Dukkanthein, and Lemyethna temples in Mrauk U.
Chittagong came under the Arakanese control during the 16th and 17th centuries. A Buddhist inscription from 1542 in Chittagong confirms that by the 1540s, Arakanese rule was firmly established under King Min Bin (1531–1553), who strengthened Chittagong as a key military and trade hub. Although Arakanese dominance over the region was periodically challenged by conflicts with Bengal, Tripura, and the Mughals, their rule was maintained through alliances with Portuguese mercenaries and a strong naval presence.
In the late 1530s, Afghan warlord Sher Shah (d. 1545) defeated the last independent Sultan of Bengal, Ghiyath ud-Din Mahmud Shah (1533–1538). In Chittagong, a power struggle emerged between two local governors, Amirza Khan and Khuda Bakhsh Khan, who had been appointed by Ghiyath ud-Din Mahmud Shah. Min Bin likely capitalized on this conflict to intervene and seize control of Chittagong.
Chittagong emerged as a key center for regional trade, although its administration was plagued by piracy, slave raids, and conflicts with neighboring powers. The Portuguese provided significant support to the Arakanese navy during this time. The renowned Bengali poet Alaol was enslaved during this period, later rising to prominence at the Arakanese court.
During Minbin's reign, Arakan came under attack both from the north, from the coast, and from the east. In 1544, the armies of King Tabinshwehti of Burma invaded and took Sandoway, beginning the Toungoo–Mrauk-U War.
The war was mainly triggered when King Min Bin provided military support in 1542 to the Kingdom of Ava during the Toungoo–Ava War (1538–1545). Although Min Bin withdrew from the alliance later that same year, King Tabinshwehti of Toungoo was determined to retaliate for Mrauk U's involvement.
Taungoo forces were unable to march further than Sandoway, and were held there for two years. Tabinshwehti brought in and Shan fighters and revitalized his offensive, marching north to Mrauk U. However, once he reached the city, Tabinshwehti retreated, as he realised it was too well-defended and he did not want to besiege or blockade it. From the north also came the Raja of Twipra, who marched as far as Ramu.
By 1547, Mrauk U successfully repelled the Toungoo invasions and maintained its independence. The war also served as a deterrent, as Mrauk U would not face another Toungoo invasion until 1580. Soon after, Twipra had also been driven back. Upon reclaiming Chittagong from this invasion, Minbin struck from producing coins with his name that styled him as sultan. Minbin's reign ended in 1553.
In the historiography of Mrauk U, the kingdom's history is typically divided into early and late periods. Though historians disagree on the specific cutoffs- the 17th century is both the kingdom's golden age and the turning point towards it relative decline.
The Mahamuni Buddha image, which is now in Mandalay, was cast and venerated some 15 miles from Mrauk U where another Mahamuni Buddha Image flanked by two other Buddha images.
From 1531 to 1629, Arakanese raiders and Portuguese pirates operated from havens along the coast of the kingdom and brought slaves in from Bengal to the kingdom. Following many raids into Bengal, the slave population increased in the 17th century as they were employed in a variety of industries in Arakan. Slaves included members of the Mughal nobility. A notable royal slave was Alaol, a renowned poet in the Arakanese court.
In 1584 AD, Arakan king Min Phalaung, invaded Tripura and advanced to Udaipur. The Arakanese forces looted Udaipur and carried out a massacre. Min Phalaung tried to take control of northern Bengal and Tripura, areas that Arakanese kings had never fully controlled before. In January 1575, he sent a well-armed force led by then Crown Prince Thado Dhamma Raza (later Min Razagyi) to Tripura. The Arakanese forces quickly took the Tripuri capital against Raja Amar Manikya and Tripura agreed to become a tributary state. He also kept a strong garrison at Chittagong which included many Portuguese sailors and soldiers.
Around the late 1590s, King Min Phalaung of Arakan invaded much of present-day Noakhali. Following the conquest of Noakhali and Chittagong, the Tripura king Rajdhar Manikya led a large force to reclaim the occupied territories. The Tripura army was then defeated again, with its king, being seriously wounded by a bullet shot, and his younger brother Jujhar Singh killed. The Arakanese forces then advanced into Tripura, reaching Udaipur, which they looted and plundered.
Portuguese pirates, in collaboration with Arakanese forces actively raided the Sundarbans and the Ganges delta during the early 17th centuries. These raids targeted coastal Bengal, including areas like Chittagong and the Sundarbans, leading to the capture and enslavement of many inhabitants. The enslaved individuals were sold in Arakan's markets contributing to the kingdom's economy.
Down the line of kings came Min Razagyi (1593–1612). During his reign, Mrauk U's territory nearly doubled. He capitalized on the declining First Taungoo Empire by invading Pegu (present-day Bago). In 1597, Min Razagyi allied with Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo, and by March 1599, a formidable Arakanese force of approximately 30,000 troops and 300 war boats, bolstered by Portuguese mercenaries led by Filipe de Brito e Nicote, captured the strategic port city of Syriam (Thanlyin). By April, they laid siege to Pegu, leading to King Nanda Bayin's surrender in December 1599. The victors divided Pegu's immense wealth, with the Arakanese seizing treasures, including gold, silver, precious stones, bronze cannons, 30 Khmer bronze statues, and a revered white elephant. Min Razagyi also took Princess Khin Ma Hnaung, Nanda Bayin's daughter as his queen.
Filipe de Brito was appointed governor of Syriam by Razagyi. However, he shook off Arakanese power over the region, and, supported by Goa, he pushed away the many attacks of Arakan. Razagyi would take three years (1602–1605) to retake Sandwip from the Portuguese.
The Kingdom had a fluctuating type of relationship with the Portuguese during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The Arakanese navy, which heavily relied on Portuguese mercenaries, controlled a significant stretch of the Bay of Bengal coastline. Tensions escalated in 1603 when Portuguese mercenary commander De Brito revolted, supported by the Portuguese viceroy of Goa. Despite efforts by King Min Razagyi to regain control of Syriam, including sending a naval force, negotiations in 1604 resulted in Syriam becoming a Portuguese colony, and Razagyi paid a ransom for the release of the crown prince.
In response, Razagyi took harsh actions against Portuguese settlers in his territory, executing 600 on Dianga Island and seeking Dutch assistance to expel the Portuguese, though the Dutch declined. In 1609, Sebastian Gonzales Tibao, a Portuguese escapee, captured Sandwip Island, aligning with Razagyi's opponents and raiding the Arakanese coast. By 1610, Tibao further betrayed Razagyi by seizing the Arakanese fleet and continuing his raids, intensifying the conflict.
In 1628, the Laungkrakca (governor of Launggyet) rebelled during Thiri Thudhamma's reign. The rebellion was put down and many leading men executed, but this only furthered the importance of future Laungkrakca.
Text from the Wikipedia article “Kingdom of Mrauk U”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.