Majapahit (Javanese: ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀, romanized: Måjåpahit; Javanese pronunciation: [mɔd͡ʒɔpaɪt] (eastern and central dialect) or [mad͡ʒapaɪt] (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (Javanese: ꦮꦶꦭ꧀ꦮꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠ; Javanese pronunciation: [wɪlwatɪkta], Sanskrit: विल्वतिक्त, romanized: vilvatikta), was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island of Java (in modern-day Indonesia). At its greatest extent, following significant military expansions, the territory of the empire and its tributary states covered almost the entire Nusantara archipelago, spanning both Asia and Oceania. After a civil war that weakened control over the vassal states, the empire slowly declined before collapsing in 1527 due to an invasion by the Sultanate of Demak. The fall of Majapahit saw the rise of Islamic kingdoms in Java.
Established by Raden Wijaya in 1292, Majapahit rose to power after the Mongol invasion of Java and reached its peak during the era of the queen Tribhuvana and her son Hayam Wuruk, whose reigns in the mid-14th century were marked by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. This achievement is also credited to the famous prime minister Patih Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakṛtāgama written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea; including territories in present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, Timor Leste, and southwestern Philippines (in particular the Sulu Archipelago), although the scope of Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of debate among historians. The nature of Majapahit's relations and influence upon its overseas vassals and also its status as an empire still provokes discussion.
Majapahit was one of the last major Hindu-Buddhist empires of the region and is considered to be one of the greatest and most powerful empires in the history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It is sometimes seen as the precedent for Indonesia's modern boundaries. Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies.
Etymology
The name Majapahit (sometimes also spelled Mojopait to reflect Javanese pronunciation), derives from Javanese, meaning "bitter maja". German orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that the maja element comes from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. Majapahit is also referred to by the Sanskrit-derived synonym Wilwatikta (Sanskrit: विल्वतिक्त, romanized: vilvatikta, lit. 'bitter maja'). Toponyms containing the word maja are common in the area in and around Trowulan (e.g. Mojokerto), as it is a widespread practice in Java to name an area, a village or settlement with the most conspicuous or abundant tree or fruit species found in that region. The 16th-century chronicle Pararaton records a legend linked to the establishment of a new settlement in the forest of Trik by Raden Wijaya in 1292. It was said that the workers clearing the Trik forest encountered some maja trees and consumed their bitter-tasting fruit which then gave its name to the village.
Strictly speaking, the name Majapahit refers to the kingdom's capital, but today it is common to refer to the kingdom by its capital's name. In Javanese primary sources, the kingdom as an extended territory is generally referred to not as Majapahit but rather as bhūmi Jawa ("land of Java") in Old Javanese or yava-dvīpa-maṇḍala ("country of the island of Java") in Sanskrit.
Historiography
Archaeological evidence
Compared to contemporary societies elsewhere in Asia, little physical evidence of Majapahit remains. However, Majapahit did produce physical evidence: the main ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area, which was the royal capital of the kingdom. The area has become the centre for the study of Majapahit history. The Trowulan archaeological site was first documented in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of British Java of the East India Company from 1811 to 1816. He reported the existence of "ruins of temples... scattered about the country for many miles", and referred to Trowulan as "this pride of Java". Aerial and satellite imagery has revealed an extensive network of canals crisscrossing the Majapahit capital. Findings from April 2011 indicate the Majapahit capital was much larger than previously believed after some artefacts were uncovered.
Inscriptions
While significant details about the history of Majapahit remain vague, this period of Javanese history is the more comprehensively documented than any other. The most reliable written sources for this period are Old Javanese inscriptions on stone and metal, which are contemporary with the events they describe. These inscriptions provide valuable information about dynasties, religious affairs, village communities, society, economics, and the arts.
The Majapahit dynasty is described in royal inscriptions such as Kudadu (issued in 1294), Sukhamerta (1296), Tuhanyaru (1323), Gajah Mada (1351), Waringin Pitu (1447) and Trailokyapuri (1486). These sources help us to clarify the family relationships and chronologies of the Majapahit rulers, as well as to correct certain errors found in the Pararaton. A few inscriptions found outside Java, such as the Pura Abang C inscription discovered in northern Bali, offer conclusive evidence that these areas were under Majapahit control during the late 14th century.
Javanese chronicles
Two important chronicle sources are available to historians of Majapahit: Deśavarṇana ("Description of Districts") was composed in 1365 and the Pararaton ("The Monarchs") was compiled sometime between 1481 and 1600. Both of these chronicles survive as 19th- or 20th-century palm-leaf manuscripts. The Deśavarṇana (also known as Nagarakretagama) is an Old Javanese eulogy written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, after which some events are covered narratively. Composed by Mpu Prapanca, it provides a primary historical account of Majapahit court during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk, as well as detailed information about the East Javanese countryside and a summary of Singhasari history. The Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit.
The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements into their historical accounts. This complexity has led to a variety of interpretive approaches. Cornelis Christiaan Berg, a Dutch historian, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the historical record corresponds in part with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The references to rulers and details of the state structure show no sign of being invented.
Chinese sources
Chinese historical sources on Majapahit mainly derive from the chronicles of the Yuan and following Ming dynasty. A key source of material is from Admiral Zheng He's reports during his visit to Majapahit between 1405–1432. Zheng He's translator, Ma Huan, wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived. The report was composed and collected in his 1451 Yingya Shenglan ("The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores"), which provides valuable insight on the culture, customs, and various social and economic aspects of Java (爪哇, Zhǎowā) during the Majapahit period. The Ming Veritable Records (Ming Shilu) provide supporting evidence for specific events in Majapahit history, such as the Regreg War.
History
After the Pamalayu campaign to conquer the Melayu Kingdom in Sumatra from 1275–1292, the kingdom of Singhasari became the most powerful polity in the region. Shortly after, Singhasari was directly challenged by Emperor Kublai Khan, the Khagan of the Mongol Empire and emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China, who sent emissaries demanding tribute. The king of Singhasari, King Kertanagara, refused to pay the tribute and mutilated a Yuan minister's face before sending him back to China. Enraged, Emperor Kublai Khan sent a massive expedition of 30,000 soldiers and 1,000 ships to Java as a punitive expedition in 1293.
Mongol invasion
By the time that the Yuan army returned to Java to exact their revenge, however, King Kertanagara was already dead; he had been killed by Jayakatwang, the Adipati (Duke) of the Kingdom of Kediri, a vassal state of Singhasari. Meanwhile, King Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, had been pardoned by the usurper King Jayakatwang with the aid of Aria Wiraraja, the Regent of Madura, and was given timberland in Trowulan as consolation. Raden Wijaya built a new settlement there, naming the village Majapahit after a type of fruit (maja) growing there that had a bitter taste (pahit). Thus, when the Yuan army arrived, Raden Wijaya allied himself with them to fight against King Jayakatwang. Once King Jayakatwang had been defeated, Raden Wijaya launched a surprise attack and turned against his former Yuan allies. The Yuan army was forced to withdraw in confusion, as they were in hostile territory and their ships were constantly being attacked. It was also their last chance to catch the monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have had to wait for another six months.
The first king, Kertarajasa Jayawardhana
In 1293, Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit. The exact date used as the birth of the Majapahit kingdom is the day of his coronation, the 15th day of the month of Kārttika in the year 1215 of the Javanese Śaka era, which equates to 10 November 1293. During his coronation, he was given the regnal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. King Kertarajasa took the remaining three daughters of his dead father-in-law King Kertanegara as his wives, with his first wife Tribhuwaneswari being prime queen consort, and her three sisters as concubines: Prajnaparamita, Narendraduhita, and the youngest, Gayatri Rajapatni. According to the Pararaton (Book of Kings), he also wed a princess named Dara Petak from Dharmasraya, the capital of the Sumatran Melayu Kingdom.
The new Majapahit kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe, Sora, and Nambi, rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the Mahapati Halayudha had set a conspiracy to overthrow all of his rivals in the court by enticing them to revolt against the king, while he gained king's favor and thus attained the highest position in the government. However, following the death of the last rebel Kuti, Halayudha's treachery was exposed, and he was subsequently captured, jailed, and sentenced to death. Wijaya himself died in 1309.
Jayanegara
Kertarajasa Wijaya was succeeded by his heir Jayanegara. The reign of Jayanegara was a difficult and chaotic one, troubled with several rebellions by his father's former companions in arms. Among them were Gajah Biru's rebellion in 1314, Semi rebellion in 1318, and the Kuti rebellion in 1319. The Kuti rebellion was the most dangerous one, as Kuti managed to take control of the capital city. With the help of Gajah Mada and his Bhayangkara palace guard, Jayanegara barely escaped from the capital and safely hid in the village of Badander. While the king was in hiding, Gajah Mada returned to the capital city to assess the situation, and after learning that Kuti's rebellion was supported neither by the common people nor by the nobles of Majapahit court, he raised resistance forces to crush the Kuti rebellion.
After Kuti forces were defeated, Jayanegara safely returned to his throne. For his loyalty and excellent service, Gajah Mada was promoted to high office to begin his career in royal court politics.
According to tradition, King Jayanegara was notorious for his immorality. One of his distasteful acts was his desire to take his half-sisters, Gitarja and Rajadewi, as wives. Since Javanese tradition abhorred the practice of half-siblings marrying, the council of royal elders spoke strongly against the king's wishes. It was not clear what motivated Jayanegara's wish – it might have been his way to ensure his claim to the throne by preventing rivals from being his half-sisters' suitors, although in the later period of the Majapahit court the custom of marriage among cousins was quite common. In the Pararaton (Book of Kings), he was known as Kala Gemet, or "weak villain". Around the time of Jayanegara's reign in the early 14th century, the Italian friar Odoric of Pordenone visited the Majapahit court in Java, noting that it was well-populated and filled with cloves, nutmeg, and many other spices. He also mentioned that the king of Java had seven vassals under him and engaged in several wars with the "khan of Cathay".
In 1328, King Jayanegara was murdered by his physician, Tanca, during a surgical operation. In complete mayhem and rage, Gajah Mada immediately killed Tanca. The motive behind this regicide was never clear. According to the Pararaton, it was Tanca's revenge for the king sexually abusing his wife. However, according to the Balinese manuscript Babad Dalem, the assassination was a stratagem crafted by Gajah Mada himself to rid the kingdom of an evil tyrant. Tradition mentions that the immoral, cruel, and abusive king often seduced and abused women, even the wives of his own subordinates. Other possible reason includes to protect the two princesses—King Jayanegara's half-sisters, Dyah Gitarja and Rajadewi Maharajasa, the daughters of his stepmother Queen Gayatri Rajapatni—from Jayanegara's cruelty. Since the slain king was childless, he left no successor.