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The Kingdom of Cusco (sometimes spelled Cuzco and in Quechua Qosqo or Qusqu), also called the Cusco confederation, was a small polity based in the Andean city of Cusco that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the start of 13th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow into the Inca Empire (1438–1533).
The government in Cusco was not much different than most polities in the region. It is likely that the title held by each ruler was that of a kuraka or sinchi, until the reign of Inca Roca, who introduced the term Sapa Inca, or Inca for short. This term would later come to represent the entire ethnic group, while also signifying the roles of "monarch" or "emperor."
Kurakas were simply the heads of an ayllu, a group of families with the same common ancestor or place of origin (Paqarina), that could differ significantly in size and territory. Meanwhile, the term capac, which meant "powerful", "rich" or "mighty", could be used as in capac kuraka ("powerful lord"), a title held by those in charge of some of the larger polities in the Andes. Similarly, there was also the title of hatun kuraka ("great lord") with the same implication, which was still in use during the Inca Empire to refer to the heads of larger provinces, as was the case with the Huancas who got divided into three.
Sinchi was the Andean equivalent of a warlord and military commander. This position was elected by the most prominent members of an ayllu and had the primary role to defend it in the event of an attack or invade other lands. It was temporal, but given that periods of conflict in the Andes could last for years or even decades, the term sinchi could be seen as equivalent for the kuraka during wartime.
During the exodus from Lake Titicaca, a caravan of Puquina-speaking immigrants from the crumbling Tiwanaku state stumbled upon Pacaritambo, the pacarina of the Maras people, since they originated "without parents" from one of the "windows" called Maras t'uqu. After staying there for many years, the group divided into two: the first were called Tampus, who would leave from another window called Sut'i t'uqu and eventually populate Ollantaytambo; and the second, who came out of the last window called Qhapaq t'uqu, which was the group under command of Manco Capac, consisting of 10 ayllus. Despite their nomadic character, on their journey, they always stopped for a few years to farm in the surrounding areas of nearby villages or independent ayllus. From Pacaritambo, they first stopped at Huanancancha, where Manco Capac took Mama Ocllo in servinacuy (concubinage); the next stop was on Tampuquiro, where possibly Sinchi Roca was born, and then they stopped at Pallata, here Sinchi Roca's first haircut was celebrated. They continued their advance and reached Quirirmanta, where Manco Capac finally married Mama Ocllo according to the usual rites, apart from whom he had other wives, among them the fierce Mama Huaco. The Incas captured the Huanacauri, which was under control of the Alcahuisa people, and did the same to the Matagua, where it was celebrated the warachikuy of Sinchi Roca, declaring him an adult. Finally, they planned to capture the Huatanay river, which constitutes the main river of the entire valley of Cusco, and had the presence of many nearby ethnic groups: Huallas, Saños, Antasayas, Lares, Poques, Sahuaseras, and the already mentioned Alcahuisas.
Faced with the imminence of a conflict, Manco Capac sought an alliance between the opposing nations. He noticed the sinchi of the Saños, called Sitichuaman. Both examined the situation and decided on the marriage between Sinchi Roca and Mama Coca, daughter of the sinchi. Both groups began to operate in agreement afterwards. Given the situation, the Huallas went to war with their sinchi Apu Cagua in command. However, they suffered a crushing defeat due to the outstanding participation of Mama Huaco at the lead of the Inca forces. Many were impaled by her order. Defeated, they fled the area towards the modern-day Sacred Valley of the Incas.
The common danger also strongly united Alcahuisas and Sahuaseras, who put up strong resistance but were ultimately defeated anyway. The Alcachuisa warlord, Copalimayta, preferred exile to domination, while the Sahuaseras were expelled to the south. Something similar happened to the three remaining groups: the Poques were expelled to the east, towards the Paucartambo River; the Lares were expelled to the northwest, to the valley that currently bears their name; while the Antasayas were expelled to the outskirts of Cusco during the government of Lloque Yupanqui (under the name of the Quisco ayllu, patronymic of their then lord). The recently founded city of Cusco was divided into four districts: Quinticancha, Chumbicancha, Sairecancha, and Yarambuycancha.
When Manco Capac died, his body was mummified by his family (Chima panaca). Sinchi Roca (c. 1230 – c. 1260) took charge of Cusco. Although his name, "generous warlord", indicates remarkable participation in the conquest of the valley, during his government, he was unable to significantly expand Cusco's territory. Among his works are the construction of terraces and the importation of enormous quantities of soil to improve the fertility of the valley, as well as a war clash against the large Ayarmaca kingdom. His descendants and family members were grouped within the Raura panaca.
His successor, Lloque Yupanqui (c. 1260 – c. 1290), continued the war against the Ayarmaca, taking advantage of the opportunity offered by the death of their leader, Tocay Capac, in combat. This heavily diminished the Ayarmacas' capability to pose a threat to the Incas for a long time, which allowed him to conquer the territory of the Maras people. Lloque Yupanqui knew how to maintain good relations with Cusco's neighbouring kingdoms, chiefdoms and ayllus in order to secure his territory and avoid unnecessary conflict. He befriended some of the Ayarmaca ayllus, Tampucunca and Quilliscachis, which caused conflicts inside the macro-ethnic group. He married Mama Cahua, princess of the Uma ayllu, (for political reasons) and so his family was grouped within the Auyni panaca.
A young Mayta Capac (c. 1290 – c. 1320) was put in charge after his father died of old age. It was necessary for the maskaypacha to be kept inside the temple of the sun and for his uncle to replace him in power for some years, which may have been the reason behind his name "Where is the powerful one?". Another possibility is that Mayta was a Puquina term, the meaning of which has been lost.
The fourth among his brothers, it is said that in his early years, still a child, he exhibited strength, physical endurance, courage, and bravery. During his reign, the Alcahuisa people prepared to revolt with the help of the cullumchima ayllu after many years of an allegedly fake allegiance. The pretext for the conflict was an incident between a man and a woman of opposing sides over a well, where Mayta Capac broke the leg of the Alcahuisa sinchi's son. In retaliation, the Inticancha was attacked during the night, but he was able to fight back and kill two men, injuring many more. After the uprising commenced, the Incas achieved two successive victories, leading to a temporary ceasefire that was promptly violated by the insurgents. Subsequently, in the third encounter, the Alcahuisa sinchi was captured and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment, with his people's territories being divided among the inhabitants of Cusco. Satisfied with the victory and having achieved the consolidation of his power around Cusco, Mayta Capac prepared his army for an expedition towards the Cunti people, to the southwest; but he died due to disease before his departure.
Many polities allied with Cusco once the news spread of his victory in suppressing the rebellion, so he celebrated great feasts for his people. He married Mama Tancaray, daughter of the lord of the Collagua people, and his panaca was called Usca Mayta. He also had many children, the eldest, named Cunti Mayta, was put as Willaq Umu, and he chose another named Tarco Huaman as his successor.
Tarco Huaman successfully replaced his father but got deposed almost immediately by his cousin, Capac Yupanqui. The latter then killed nine of his brothers and rounded up the rest to make them swear allegiance as to ensure his reign. Tarco Huaman was placed in charge of his father's panaca, and would eventually be sent as a governor by the new Sapa Inca to ensure the payment of "1000 bird cages from the Andes and the puna grasslands" as tribute in the newly annexed Cuyos ayllu.
Capac Yupanqui (c. 1320 – c. 1350) inherited a Cusco under the direct interest of his larger neighbours as it was no longer a small invader kingdom struggling for survival but one fighting to gain power. He continued the project of his uncle by invading the Cunti peoples, which he defeated in two battles, killing more than 6000 men. Due to his victory, the Quechua polity (not to be confused with Quechua people) sent him an embassy with many gifts as a symbol of their alliance. They asked for his protection against the expanding Chanka peoples who threatened them with invasion in Andahuaylas. Because Yupanqui considered them "great warriors", he accepted the offer by sending pieces of gold and silver. Later, he went to conquer the Masca, and the western ayllus of Anta and Cuyo. In the latter, he asked for bird cages as tribute. These were used in rites before going out on military campaigns.
The Ayarmaca kingdom, already recovered from the conflicts provoked by Lloque Yupanqui and having heard the news of the conquests of Cusco, saw in the Chanka warriors a greater threat than that of its southern neighbors, for which reason they sought an alliance with Capac Yupanqui by sending him the princess Curi Hilpay to marry, from this union he had a son called Quispe Yupanqui. Cusi Chimbo was another wife of his, sister of the first Coya before Curi Hilpay, called Mama Chimbo, she is described as "Cruel and with bad behavior, friend of banquets and drunkenness". Whether it was jealousy or a part of Inca Roca's conspiracy, she would end up poisoning his husband through a golden cup. This led to a political crisis in Cusco, and the ensuing chaos was taken advantage of by the Chanka, who conquered the now-isolated Quechua polity. Capac Yupanqui assigned Quispe Yupanqui as his successor before dying, unfortunately, he was assassinated during the quick coup d'état of the government made by Inca Roca with the support of the Hanan Cusco dynasty.
Inca Roca (c. 1350 – c. 1380) was the first ruler who used the term "Inka" to refer to himself, which meant monarch or emperor, but as is known, it is also used to refer to the ethnic group, and during the empire, to the royalty and some members of the nobility. Before this, it was most likely that Cusco's rulers simply had the title of sinchis or curacas, like almost every polity at the time.
Due to the political turmoil in the capital, several ayllus rebelled against the new government, among them the Mascas whose kuraka, Cusi Huaman, was a sympathizer of the Hurin dynasty; the uprising had no effect and after a bloody battle he was jailed in Cusco. The sinchis of the Muyna and Pinagua peoples, Muyna Pongo and Huaman Tupac respectively, took advantage of the occasion and tried to gain independence, failing right after the first combat, where the first one died and the second one fled, never to be seen again.
After these events, Inca Roca led an expedition through Quiquijana and conquered the town of Caytomarca, which he would eventually lose due to leaving no garrison behind. He also conquered the people of Pumatambo, to the southwest, where he travelled and visited for a few days the temples that were there.
Text from the Wikipedia article “Kingdom of Cusco”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.