The Battle of Valparaíso, also called the Capture of USS Essex, was a naval action fought during the War of 1812. It took place off Valparaíso, Chile on March 28, 1814, between the frigate USS Essex and the sloop USS Essex Junior of the United States Navy and the frigate HMS Phoebe and sloop HMS Cherub of the Royal Navy. The British ships won the battle, and the American vessels were captured.
Prelude
David Porter's cruise into the Pacific
Captain David Porter of USS Essex had proposed a Pacific voyage to the Secretary of the Navy for exploration and colonization before the War of 1812 had begun. Once the war was declared, Porter flew his iconic white ensign with the words "Free Trade and Sailors rights" from Essex which was copied on USS Chesapeake by James Lawrence. Porter was assigned to Commodore William Bainbridge's squadron in USS Constitution, but he found no sign of Bainbridge at the rendezvous location at Porto Praya on the Cape Verde island or on the Brazil coast.
Porter captured the Post Office packet Nocton on 12 December 1812 laden with £15,000 of specie. Nocton was sent home as a prize but recaptured by HMS Belvidera on 5 January. He took another prize off Rio de Janeiro. He then rounded Cape Horn, following his command to act "for the good of the service". He was aware that the Spanish colonies were in revolt and that they might welcome a warship from the United States, and he was also aware that the British had a lucrative whaling industry and no warships in the Pacific. He planned to masquerade Essex as the more powerful Constitution until he arrived in the Pacific.
Porter arrived in Valparaíso on 15 March 1813 where he received a warm welcome from the revolutionary government, and he took advantage of this to take on food, water, and stores for Essex. He refitted Essex for eight days, then sailed north where he captured a Peruvian privateer. He recaptured an American whaler on his way to the Galapagos Islands, and he captured 12 British whalers between 29 April and 18 September. The prizes gave him access to stores and food, but water remained short. He armed two of his prizes as auxiliary support and detached them to capture others, and two more ships were returned to their captains to ferry the prisoners to Valparaíso. Porter claimed that he did $5 million (£1.13 million) worth of damage to British commercial shipping, making him the only American frigate captain to effectively raid commerce during the War of 1812. Despite that, the only prize to reach the United States was the whale ship Atlantic which Porter armed and renamed Essex Junior.
By September 1813, Essex needed a major refit and Porter picked up rumors that a British squadron was searching for him. He refitted Essex at the Marquesas Islands, far from the American coast so as not to encounter the British. He reached Nuka Hiva on 25 October 1813 and Essex underwent a major overhaul. Porter, meanwhile, fought the island's residents and annexed it for the United States. He renamed the island Madison Island in the hope that its annexation would be ratified by President Madison's administration, but the annexation was not approved. Porter next sailed to Valparaíso in the hope of encountering a British frigate, and he left Nuka Hiva on 13 December with a small squadron of prizes. He had left officers in charge of the island, but their control did not last long; they were eventually overthrown and fled to Hawaii—only to be captured by the British.
On 12 January 1814, Essex arrived in Valparaíso with Essex Junior in company. The Carrera family had supported him nine months earlier, but they were now in jail. A civil war had broken out in Chile and a Spanish counter-attack was expected.
The British global intelligence network
To get to the Pacific, Porter had to cross the waters of the British Brazil Station which was full of ships trading in specie from South America. After the outbreak of war, the trade in silver was transferred to Navy ships including HMS Bonne Citoyenne and HMS Nereus. Through these ships, the whereabouts of USS Constitution, USS Hornet and USS Essex was relayed to the rest of the British fleet. On 3 April 1813, Captain Heywood of Nereus reported that Essex had arrived in Valparaíso on 15 March intent on a short stay to Rear Admiral Manley Dixon in the 74-gun HMS Montagu. Dixon commanded a squadron of the 24-pounder frigate HMS Indefatigable, four 18-pounder frigates, three sixth rates, and three sloops. By late April it was clear Essex was encountered off Cape Frio in January, not Constitution. Dixon was unable to detach the sloops HMS Cherub and HMS Racoon to pursue Essex as he required all the ships he could to protect the silver trade.
Captain Heywood of Nereus forwarded a letter from Brown and Watson, British merchants at Valparaíso, to Dixon on 3 June 1813 reporting the welcoming of Essex in the harbor and that Essex had "gone to take and destroy the English whalers on the coast". Rumors had circulated that Porter would sail across the Pacific to the coast of China with orders to "destroy, but capture nothing".
Racoon had gone to San Salvador and Pernambuco and upon her return had reported that it was clear of United States privateers and men-of-war. Since the trade route was secure, Dixon could direct his attention to the Pacific. On 10 June HMS Phoebe and the merchant ship Isaac Todd joined Dixon's squadron. Phoebe was sent to destroy the trading post at Astoria. Dixon detached Cherub and Racoon to guard the whaling fishery, while Phoebe's mission was modified, becoming to seek out and capture or destroy Essex. Captain James Hillyar of Phoebe was to keep his mission a secret. The Admiralty would question why Cherub and Racoon were not detached earlier. Dixon would assert that the specie trade was a priority and that only once Phoebe had arrived, would Cherub and Racoon safely get to the Pacific as if Essex had encountered the two sloops on their own, the ships being much smaller, would have surely been captured. Dixon feared that Essex had reinforcements, which it did not, hence, he intended on detaching another frigate to accompany Phoebe in the event that Essex was not alone, but none were available. Hillyar was given complete discretion as Dixon was aware that new intelligence would reach Phoebe much faster than orders from Montagu in Rio de Janeiro would, the only exception being that Phoebe must not violate the neutrality of the Spanish colonies.
Nereus would arrive in Rio carrying 2,000,000 Spanish dollars and £100,000 in cash. Dixon would transfer this to Montagu as Montagu was a much more powerful ship and detach Montagu to Britain and switch his command with Heywood of Nereus so as not to have to detach Nereus and an escort to Britain. This way, the maximum number of ships remained at Rio de Janeiro. Dixon would continue his command from smaller frigates.
Captain William Bowles of HMS Aquilon was stationed at the Buenos Aires station to forward information to London about the trans-Andean trade routes and the American threat, larger issues of British trade and the disposition of Chilean politics. He intercepted letters that revealed Hillyar's secret mission. He feared that the information would get to Porter in USS Essex and Essex would escape.
Bowles successfully blocked Porter's ability to sell some prizes at Valparaíso through letters from Buenos Aires. After the fall of the Carrera family in 1813, the political situation in Chile began to favor the British. Furthermore, news of HMS Shannon's victory over USS Chesapeake had arrived in Valparaíso. It was seen that the United States influence was on the decline.
On 12 July 1813 Hillyar in Phoebe sealed orders for rendezvous and locations to renew stores for Isaac Todd, Cherub, and Racoon without contact of the South American mainland. While rounding Cape Horn, the ships became separated from Isaac Todd and in October, Hillyar received information that Essex had taken her. Hillyar then detached Racoon to the Columbia River to destroy the trading post at Astoria. Racoon arrived to discover that the fort had already been secured by the North West Company on 30 November. Hillyar found that Essex had been sighted at the Juan Fernández Islands, Valparaíso, and the Galapagos, but didn't know where exactly to find her.
Finally, in 1814, Dixon would have enough ships to detach the frigates Tagus and Nereus to reinforce Hillyar, but they would not arrive until after Essex was taken.
Bowles received information that Essex had arrived in Valparaíso, Chile had fallen into civil war and the Carrera family were no longer in power and forwarded it to Dixon in Rio de Janeiro and to the Admiralty in London. Bowles feared that Essex would leave Valparaíso and capture him in HMS Aquilon. This would give the impression of British weakness and hence the British would lose their influence in South America. Hillyar in Phoebe also received Essex's whereabouts and had no intention of allowing Essex to escape from Valparaíso.
The opposing forces
Despite Essex and Phoebe being nearly equal in length and tonnage, the British had the decisive advantage of carrying long guns rather than the carronades Essex was armed with. Furthermore, Cherub was far superior to Essex Junior.
Comparison of combatant vessels
(English measurement methods used for both ships;)
Battle
The blockade
On 3 February the 36-gun frigate Phoebe and the 18 gun ship-rigged sloop Cherub arrived at Valparaíso. Hillyar anticipated Porter's moves. Knowing that British diplomatic support was more useful to the Chileans than American support, he knew Essex could not stay long in Valparaíso. British merchant George O'Brien in the Emily sailed out of Valparaíso with intelligence about Essex for Hillyar in Phoebe. Mr. Cromptom and Andrew Bless gave Hillyar the latest on the political situation in Chile.
Porter had hoped for a duel, two ships against two ships and had knowingly sailed into Valparaíso to encounter the British. He now found himself blockaded by a squadron of a superior force consisting only of the very two ships he had hoped to engage. Hillyar sailed into the harbor at Valparaíso in Phoebe very close to Essex. Essex had rigged kedge anchors at the ends of its yards to grapple Phoebe and engage. Noticing Essex was ready for battle, Hillyar hauled off.
Hillyar had attempted to cause Essex to fire first and violate the Chilean neutrality, but Porter held his fire. Despite avoiding a diplomatic conflict, Porter nevertheless missed his opportunity to escape to sea while Phoebe was in port. Essex was faster than Cherub and was known to make at least 11.4 knots (21.1 km/h; 13.1 mph), Phoebe on the other hand could sail up to 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph) as she was built to a lengthened design of the Perseverance-class frigate for the very purpose of increasing speed. Therefore, it was unlikely that Essex could have successfully escaped without a fight.
The next day, Porter hoisted his ensign written "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" to the fore topgallant masthead. To counter what Hillyar considered an "insidious effort to shake the loyalty of thoughtless British seamen", Phoebe hoisted a St George's ensign written "God and Country, British Sailors' Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both." Hillyar played God Save the King and the crew manned the rigging and gave three cheers. Porter then paraded his crew in Valparaíso with flags of American slogans. This propaganda attempt at gaining Chilean support was to little effect.
These displays of morals and philosophy were a reference to the causes of the War of 1812. The Americans had declared war on Britain partly because the British had been impressing American citizens from merchant ships and had cut off the American trade with France, hence, the Americans demanded "Free trade and sailors' rights". The British had asserted that the people they impressed were deserters from the Royal Navy who had been granted citizenship in the United States, hence Hillyar sent his message to the deserters that "God and Country [are a] British Sailor's Best Rights. Traitors Offend Both." Despite these bold displays of their respective national ideology, it is unlikely that the average seaman aboard either ship cared. They were more to intimidate opposing captains.