Battle of Ağaçayırı was a battle between the army of the Ottoman Empire under the command of Hadım Ali Pasha and the army of the Mamluk Sultanate led by Emir Uzbek. The battle began on August 16, 1488, between Tarsus and Adana during the First Ottoman–Mamluk War, and ended the next day in favor of the Egyptians. In 1488, the Mamluk army on the way to Adana was caught in a trap at the exit of the Belen Pass near Iskenderun. The Ottoman fleet, commanded by Hersekli Ahmed Pasha, was on standby and fired upon the vanguard of the Mamluk army. However, the fleet was later caught in a storm, which allowed the Mamluk army to pass into the Çukurova lowlands.
At this time, the Ottoman army was busy restoring the destroyed fortifications of the cities. Camping near Ağaçayırı, roughly halfway between Adana and Tarsus, the Mamluk army rested for two or three days until the Ottoman army approached. The Mamluk army attacked the Ottoman army the same day to prevent their soldiers from resting. Initially, the advantage was with the Ottomans, but the death of several commanders on their right flank led to confusion and retreat. At night, Ali Pasha withdrew to Ereğli. This was the third major Ottoman defeat in the Ottoman–Mamluk War, resulting in the temporary loss of part of Cilicia by the Ottomans.
Background
The war between the Ottoman Empire and the Mamluk Sultanate began in 1485. Twice—in 1485 and 1486—the Ottomans suffered heavy defeats. In 1486, at the Battle of Adana, the beylerbey of Karaman, Karagöz Mehmet Pasha, fled the battlefield with his army, resulting in the Ottoman commander and son-in-law of Sultan Bayezid II, Hersekli Ahmed Pasha, being wounded and captured. In 1487, after a successful campaign by the grand vizier Koca Davud Pasha in Cilicia, Hersekli Ahmed was released by the Mamluks. Following this, Bayezid appointed Ahmed Pasha as the Sanjak-bey of Gallipoli. This position meant that Ahmed Pasha became the commander of the Ottoman fleet.
In early December 1487, a divan was convened in Istanbul, where Bayezid decided to continue military operations. According to Idris Bidlisi, the goal was to establish control over Cilicia. The army was placed under the command of the recently appointed vizier Hadım Ali Pasha. The beylerbeys of Rumelia, Anatolia, and Karaman—Halil Pasha, Sinan Pasha, and Yakub Pasha, respectively—were to bring their armies under his command. Additionally, the Ottoman fleet under Hersekli Ahmed Pasha was to participate in the campaign.
On 17 March 1488 (a few sources mention the 18th), the Ottoman army crossed the Bosporus. Ali Pasha led the army past Konya to Ereğli, Konya.
Passing through the Cilician Gates and quickly capturing the castles of Cilicia, Ali Pasha appointed commanders in each captured settlement. He then ordered the reconstruction of the bridge in Adana and the repair of the fortifications of Adana and Tarsus, which had been damaged in previous sieges. The Divan secretary (Nişancı) Tajizade Saadi Çelebi called Ali Pasha "the sword of the Almighty" after these events.
The Ottoman fleet began gathering near the island of Skyros in early 1488. Receiving reports from the governors of their island possessions in the Aegean Sea, the Venetians became alarmed and dispatched Admiral Francisco di Priuli with a fleet of thirty to forty ships to monitor the Ottomans. Priuli arrived at Cyprus two days before the Ottoman fleet passed by the island, preventing it from landing in Famagusta. The Ottoman fleet passed by Rhodes on May 28, 1488.
News of the Ottoman capture of Cilicia reached Cairo in April 1488, prompting Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaitbay to assemble an army. In mid-May 1488, the Mamluk army under Emir Ozbay moved north. In Aleppo, Ozbay received reports of the latest news from scouts returning from Cilicia.
Forces Involved
Francesco Sansovino estimated the Ottoman forces at 120,000 men, Richard Knolles and the secretary of the Knights Hospitaller Guillaume Caoursin estimated 100,000, while Giovanni Maria Angiolello estimated 60,000. Historians consider Angiolello's estimate more reliable. The army included three thousand kapikulu cavalry, six thousand infantry janissaries, and akıncı under the command of Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey.
The Mamluk army was smaller, although Muhammad ibn Iyas, who lived in Cairo, wrote that since the time of Sultan Barquq (1382-1399), Egypt had not gathered such a large army. According to him, "this was one of the largest armies ever heard of." The army arrived in Damascus between May 22 and July 4 and moved toward Aleppo. Estimates of the Mamluk army's size vary.
The Damascene Muhammad Ibn Ali Ibn Tulun and G. Caoursin wrote of 50,000 men, M. Guadzo, F. Sansovino and R. Nolls of 70,000, but the most realistic estimate is 40,000, given by Angiolello.
Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller Pierre d'Aubusson, who observed the passage of the Ottoman fleet past Rhodes, wrote in a letter to the Pope Innocent VIII about 80 Ottoman ships. Angiolello mentioned the same figure. S. Fisher considered this estimate accurate. Marino Sanudo the Younger, Ashikpashazade and Kemalpashazade wrote about one hundred ships. This view is shared by M. Cezar.
First Clash
The first clash between the two armies was described by the resident of Damascus, Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Tulun, and the Ottoman contemporary, Idris Bidlisi. According to Ibn Tulun, on 21 July 1488, the vanguard of the Mamluk army, consisting of Palestinian Arabs under the command of their leader Khalil ibn Ismail, and Syrian detachments fell into an Ottoman trap. The passage through the Syrian Gates was controlled by Hersekli Ahmed Pasha. Soon after the advanced units of the Syrian army passed through the gorge, they found themselves on a narrow strip of land (Bab al-Malik) between the sea and the mountains, making them an easy target. Near the mouth of the Payas River, where it flows into the İskenderun Bay, Ottoman cannons and muskets almost completely destroyed them. Among the dead was the wali of Hama, Amir Sibay min Kanibay al-Tuyūrī al-Zahiri.
The few survivors fled to Aleppo, where Uzbek (Ozbay) was with news of the Ottoman blockade of the Syrian Gates and the destruction of the vanguard units. Despite this information, Uzbek ordered to proceed according to the previously devised plan and on August 9 he himself with the Mamluk army arrived at the fortress of Bagras, the gathering place of the Cilician tribes Ramazanogullari and Turgutogullari, who had fled from the Ottoman attack. Passing through the Belen Pass, Uzbek saw that Ottoman ships were stationed where he had been informed and that Bab al-Malik was still within their firing range. Uzbek found himself trapped, and his emirs were in panic, since there was no way back, and the way forward meant moving in a narrow column over the bridge across the Payas River directly under fire.
It is unknown how this clash would have ended if not for the fortunate outbreak of a storm for the Mamluks. Some Ottoman ships were thrown ashore, some were smashed against rocks.
The Mamluks fought only with Ottoman soldiers who had made it ashore from the wrecked ships, killing them in revenge for their vanguard. Ahmed Pasha led the surviving ships to Porto Palo (possibly the harbor at the mouth of the Ceyhan River), according to Angiolello, who at that time was in Aq Qoyunlu as an envoy. According to Angiolello, the Ottomans lost twenty-five ships.
Karaca Bey, the sanjakbey of Malatya, who witnessed or participated in the events, wrote to Halid Bey, sanjakbey of Çemişgezek, that initially the Ottomans won, but then the Mamluks won and captured forty-one ships.
Pierre d’Obusson wrote that this was an African storm, common in this area.
Before the Battle
Having captured Bab al-Malik, on 13 or 14 August 1488, the Mamluk army moved north into the Çukurova plain along the coast of the bay toward Kevare. Leaving part of the troops to besiege the Ottoman-occupied city, Uzbek led the army further toward Adana. On the way to Adana, Kevare was taken on September 29. The Mamluks crossed the Ceyhan River near Missis, and the Seyhan River near Adana. Then Uzbek headed towards Tarsus and about halfway from Adana set up camp in a plain called Ağaçayırı (Valley of Trees).
The Mamluks stayed at this spot for three days until noon on 16 August 1488, when the Ottoman army approached from Adana. Uzbek noted that the Ottoman army was larger and better armed, and gathered the emirs to decide on further actions. Some emirs advocated an immediate attack, while others suggested attacking the next morning. Two Italians present at the council recommended starting the fight immediately to prevent the Ottomans from resting and reorganizing.
Battle
Many mistakenly assume that the armies of the Ottomans and Mamluks were organized according to a three-squadron formation: center, vanguard and rear guard.
The formation of both armies followed a specific order — the "battle order of the army" (tartib al-sufüf). Accordingly, the army was divided into five parts: center, right flank, left flank, vanguard, and rear guard. Therefore, the army is sometimes called in Arabic *hamis* ("five"). The center was staffed with the best troops; the commander was located in the center. On both flanks were subordinate commanders leading provincial armies. The rear guard was responsible for supplies, weapons, draft animals, and artillery. Besides the main five parts, the army could also have light cavalry units on the left and right fronts and archer units.
In the Ottoman army, the center held three thousand kapikulu cavalrymen, divided into three regiments under the command of Turahanoglu Omer Bey, Isfendiyaroglu Kızıl Ahmed Bey, and Mustanzaroglu Mahmud Bey. An elite corps of two thousand janissaries was positioned directly in front of the center.
On the right flank were the armies of Anatolia and Karaman under the command of the beylerbey of Anatolia, Sinan Arnavut Pasha, and the beylerbey of Karaman, Yakup Pasha.
On the left flank was the Rumelia army under the beylerbey of Rumelia, Halil Pasha. Between the center and Anatolia army were the akıncı under the command of the sons of Evrenos: Iskender, Suleiman, and Isa. Between the center and Rumelia army were akıncı under the sanjakbey of Ohrid, Hussein Bey. Infantry (azaps) were placed in front of the line. The son of Gedik Ahmed Pasha, Yahya, participated in the battle.
The Mamluk army formation was similar. The commander, Emir Ozbek, was in the center. On the right flank (opposite the Rumelia army) was the Damascus army under the beylerbey of Damascus, Kansuh al-Yahhawi, and on the left flank (opposite the Anatolia and Karaman armies) was the Aleppo army under the beylerbey of Aleppo, Emir Ozdemir (Uzdamur). Next to him on the left flank were detachments of smaller provinces with their emirs.
Four thousand mamluks from the elite corps of sultan's mamluks under Emir Temruz ash-Shamsi were positioned in front of the center. Auxiliary forces were deployed near both wings: Syrian Turkmens between the center and right flank, and Ramazanogullari and Turgudogullari between the center and left flank. Infantry from Syria were placed in front.
First phase: battle
On August 16 or 17, 1488, both armies met near Adana at Aga Chairi (Agadj-Tsairi, Valley of Trees). The place of battle was described by G. Caoursin as: "It was on one of those plains stretching to the Aman Mountain, where Alexander defeated Darius". Angiolello vaguely wrote that the battle took place "in the countryside before Adana on the road to Tarsus."
The battle began at noon and ended only at nightfall. Initially, the Ottomans had the advantage.
According to Idris Bidlisi, the battle was initiated by the Mamluk Arab infantry, led by Khalil ibn Ismail from Nablus and Nashir-ad-Din Muhammad ibn Khanash. Tursun Bey wrote that the Mamluks first attacked both flanks and then the Ottoman center. But the azaps repelled them, the Arabs were pushed back and fled. Then on the right flank of the Mamluk formation, the Damascus army was split in two by the Rumelia army. Seeing this, Kansuh al-Yahhawi retreated and redeployed to the left flank next to the Aleppo army. Together they pressured the right Ottoman flank composed of the Anatolia and Karaman armies and akıncı detachments. Four thousand sultan's mamluks had a numerical advantage over two thousand janissaries. Along with the Turkmen cavalry Ramazanogullari and Turgudogullari, the commander of the sultan's mamluks Temruz ash-Shamsi managed to break in wedge formation into the Ottoman army line. The entire right flank was cut off from the center.
First, the Karaman army was defeated, its retreat, and the death of the Anatolia beylerbey caused panic in the Anatolia army. The two sons of Evrenos, commanding the akıncı on the right flank, also died, which led the surviving soldiers to flee for their lives. The soldiers of Karaman and Anatolia armies, retreating, looted the rear camp and fled to Karaman.