Jainism ( JAY-niz-əm, JYE-niz-əm), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion that teaches a path toward spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined nonviolence (ahimsa) to all living creatures. The tradition is spiritually guided by 24 tirthankaras (ford-makers), supreme teachers who have conquered the cycle of rebirth and attained omniscience (kevala jnana). The core of Jain philosophy is established on three ethical pillars: ahiṃsā (nonviolence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism or many-sided reality), and aparigraha (non-possession). While its ultimate spiritual goal is moksha (liberation from karma), these ethical principles have historically fostered a community renowned for its high literacy, trusted role in commerce, and distinct intellectual culture.
Jain philosophy includes the doctrine of "anekāntavāda", which holds that truth and reality are complex and have multiple aspects, and that no single viewpoint is absolutely complete. This framework encourages intellectual humility and conflict resolution, in contrast to what the tradition terms "one-sided" ("ekānta") views. Ethically, the vow of "aparigraha" (non-attachment) requires monks to renounce all property, and encourages laypersons to limit their possessions and desires ("iccha-parimana"). Historically, the application of nonviolence led the Jain community to avoid agriculture and warfare, with many Jains engaging in trade and banking, becoming a mercantile presence in ancient and medieval India. The community supported networks of temples, libraries, and charitable institutions.
The tradition views itself as eternal, with the tirthankaras guiding every cosmic time cycle. In the current cycle, the first tirthankara was Rishabhanatha, credited in tradition with establishing civilized society. The 23rd tirthankara, Pārśvanātha, is dated by historians to the c. 8th or 7th century BCE, making him likely the tradtion's earliest historical figure. The 24th and final tirthankara, Mahavira c. 6th or 5th century BCE, was a contemporary of the Buddha and a central figure in the Śramaṇa movement of Greater Magadha, which rejected the authority of the Vedas and established the current ascetic order.
Jainism has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas, residing mostly in India, with diaspora communities in North America, Europe, and East Asia. The community is divided into two major sub-traditions, the Digambaras ("sky-clad") and Śvētāmbaras ("white-clad"), which differ on ascetic practices, gender, and canonical texts, while sharing a core philosophy. Jains have contributed to the development of logic, art, architecture, law, and ethics in Indian culture. Major festivals include Paryushana or (Das Lakshana), Akshaya Tritiya, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, and Diwali.
Etymology
The name Jainism comes from ji (Sanskrit), "to conquer," referring to the battle against the passions and bodily desires, aiming to reach omniscience. Those few who accomplish this are called jina, "conqueror." Adherents are called jain or jaina, "follower of the conquerors," a term which replaced the older name nirgrantha, bondless, which was only used for ascetic wanderers.
Jain doctrine and philosophy
Ratnatraya (the three jewels)
The salvational goal for ascetics is to reach moksha (liberation), while for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Purification of the soul and liberation are held to be achievable through the three jewels (ratnatraya): samyak darśana, (right vision or faith in the Jain teachings or scriptures, more specifically the seven tattvas); samyak gyana, (right knowledge and understanding of the Jain teachings, more specifically of self (jiva) and non-self (ajiva)); and samyak charitra, (correct conduct, behavior consistent with these teachings and the five vows.) Jain texts often add "samyak tapas" (correct asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation).
The core of Jainism is also summarized in the three tenets of ahiṃsā (nonviolence), aparigraha (asceticism), and anekāntavāda (a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality).
Core principles (the vows)
Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following five vows of Jainism:
- Ahiṃsā, ("intentional non-violence" or "noninjury") is the first major vow, to cause no harm to other human beings as well as all living beings, particularly animals. This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.
- Satya, ("truth") is the vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.
- Asteya, ("not stealing") A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.
- Brahmacharya, ("celibacy") Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.
- Aparigraha, ("non-possessiveness") This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.
Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas. The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion. This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.
Ahimsa – non-violence
The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.
Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.
The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.
Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas, the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.
Aparigraha – non-attachment
The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.
Jain metaphysics explains the nature of the universe and its interaction with the soul (jiva). It posits that the soul is an eternal entity that is separate from the body and the physical world. Their interaction is what defines the cycle of rebirth (Saṃsāra).
Soul and karma
According to Jain beliefs, vibrational energy (virya) draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages. Purification of soul from karmic particles and thereby liberation can be achieved through ratnatraya, the path of the three jewels, namely samyak darśana, correct faith in the Jain teachings; samyak gyana, correct knowledge and understanding of those teachings; and samyak charitra, correct conduct, behavior consistent with the five vows.
Jainism, like other Indian religions, believes in karma, but with a unique and fundamental difference. It is the only tradition that conceives of karma as a physical, material substance — subtle, invisible particles of matter (pudgala) that exist in the universe. These particles are drawn to the soul (jiva) by its actions, thoughts, and words.
This "karmic dirt" then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss. This bondage of karma is the cause of the soul's entrapment in Saṃsāra and its repeated cycles of birth and death.
The Tattvas (fundamental truths)
The tattvas are the seven (or nine) fundamental truths that form the basis of the entire Jain path. They describe the step-by-step process of karmic bondage and liberation:
- Jīva — The living, sentient soul.
- Ajīva — Non-living substances, including matter, time, and karma.
- Āsrava — The influx or inflow of karmic particles to the soul.
- Bandha — The bondage of these karmic particles to the soul.
- Saṃvara — The stoppage of new karmic inflow (achieved by vows and discipline).
- Nirjarā — The shedding or purification of existing, bound karma (achieved by asceticism).
- Moksha — The complete liberation of the soul, freeing it from all karma to regain its pure, omniscient state.
Some texts add two more categories, Punya (good karma) and Paapa (bad karma), as sub-types of Āsrava and Bandha, making nine tattvas in total.
Saṃsāra (cycle of rebirth)
Saṃsāra is the doctrine of the worldly cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, through which the soul transmigrates based on its karma. This cycle is considered the natural state of existence, but it is also one of suffering, and the ultimate aim of Jainism is liberation (Moksha) from it.
According to Jain tradition, souls can be reborn in one of four states of existence (gatis): as heavenly beings, humans, animals/plants, or hellish beings. Jain theosophy also describes a vast number of potential birth-situations, traditionally 8.4 million, through which the unliberated soul cycles. Jain philosophy also uniquely posits the existence of abhavya (incapable) souls, a category of souls that are eternally trapped in Saṃsāra and can never attain liberation.
Cosmology: substance, time, and realms
Jain cosmology views the universe as an uncreated, eternal, and self-sustaining entity. It was never created by a god and will never be destroyed.
This universe is composed of six eternal substances known as dravya:
- Jīva (the living soul)
- Pudgala (non-sentient matter)
- Dharma (the principle of motion)
- Adharma (the principle of rest)
- Ākāśa (space)
- Kāla (time)
Kāla (time) is itself conceived as a boundless, eternal wheel (kālachakra) that rotates ceaselessly. It is divided into two half-cycles: an ascending arc (utsarpiṇī) of progressive happiness and virtue, and a descending arc (avasarpiṇī) of progressive sorrow and decline.
The universe itself is structurally divided into three realms, or lokas: the Urdhva Loka (upper world of heavenly beings), the Madhya Loka (middle world of humans, animals, and plants), and the Adho Loka (lower world of hellish beings). All unliberated souls, including gods and demons, transmigrate through these three realms based on their karma.
Epistemology
Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (pramana). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), and testimony (sabda or the word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini. Some Jain texts add analogy (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions.
In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds—mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna (clairvoyance), manah prayāya Jñāna (telepathy) and kevala jnana (omniscience). According to the Jain text Tattvartha sūtra, the first two are indirect knowledge, and the remaining three are direct knowledge.