Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. Occupying 652,864 square kilometers (252,072 sq mi) of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. Kabul is the country's capital and largest city. Afghanistan's population is estimated to be between 35 and 50 million.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates to the Middle Paleolithic era. The country's land has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by the Achaemenids, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and a United States-led coalition. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals, among others, rose to form major empires. Because of the various conquests and periods in both the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres, the area was a center for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam.
The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani Empire in the 18th century under Ahmad Shah Durrani, although Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first modern Afghan state. Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Empire and the Russian Empire. From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War; the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British victory. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1926; this monarchy lasted almost half a century.
Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. This period of instability began in 1973 when King Zahir Shah was overthrown by his cousin Mohammad Daoud Khan, ending the monarchy and resulting in the establishment of the Republic of Afghanistan. Daoud Khan became the President of Afghanistan, ruling as an autocrat. In 1978 the conflict became a violent one when a communist revolution overthrew and assassinated Daoud Khan, establishing the socialist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Subsequent infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979.
The mujahideen won against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War, leading to the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989. The ensuing civil war overthrew the socialist republic and established the Islamic State of Afghanistan through the Peshawar Accord, which could not remain in force and resulted in a second civil war between mujahideen factions in 1992. The Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul, ending the 2001–2021 war. The Taliban government is widely unrecognized by the international community due to reported violations of human rights in Afghanistan, particularly regarding the treatment of women by the Taliban.
Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including lithium, iron, zinc, and copper. It is the world's third largest producer of both saffron and cashmere. The country is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and a founding member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. Due to the effects of war in recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition. Afghanistan remains among the world's least developed countries with its economic output per capita among the lowest of any country.
Etymology
The precise origin of the name is uncertain and debated. Some scholars suggest that the root name Afghān is derived from the Sanskrit word Aśvakan, which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush. Aśvakan literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "cavalrymen" (from aśva, the Sanskrit and Avestan words for "horse").
Historically, the ethnonym Afghān was used to refer to ethnic Pashtuns. The Arabic and Persian form of the name, Afġān, was first attested in the 10th-century geography book Hudud al-'Alam. The last part of the name, "-stan", is a Persian suffix meaning "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam:
The name Afghanistan (Afghānistān, land of the Afghans / Pashtuns, afāghina, sing. afghān) can be traced to the early eighth/fourteenth century, when it designated the easternmost part of the Kartid realm. This name was later used for certain regions in the Ṣafavid and Mughal empires that were inhabited by Afghans. While based on a state-supporting elite of Abdālī / Durrānī Afghans, the Sadūzāʾī Durrānī polity that came into being in 1747 (1160 in the Islamic calendar) was not called Afghanistan in its own day. The name became a state designation only during the colonial interventions of the 19th century.
The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognized Dost Mohammad Khan as King of Afghanistan.
History
Prehistory and antiquity
Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in the historical value of its archaeological sites. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) was a center of the Helmand culture. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan.
After 2000 BCE successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the Caspian Sea. The region at the time was referred to as Ariana. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia, Aria, and Bactria within its eastern boundaries. An inscription on the tombstone of Darius the Great mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered. The region of Arachosia, around Kandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia, and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism".
Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE, when Seleucids ceded much of it to the Maurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE. The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan. Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis lazuli stones mainly from the Badakhshan region.
During the first century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making Buddhism flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE, though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites who, in turn, was replaced by the Hephthalites. They were replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870; this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu Shahi. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture.
Medieval period
Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE as the caliphate spread eastwards; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the arrival of Islam, the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions such as Zoroastrianism, Buddhism or Greco-Buddhism, Ancient Iranian religions, Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism. An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were followers of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana, Anahita or Mihr (Mithra) and portrayed Greek gods as protectors of Buddha. The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. The Turkic mamluk Ghaznavids rose to power in the 10th century.
By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni had defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Islamized the wider region, with the exception of Kafiristan. Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi. The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the Tajik Ghurids in 1186, whose architectural achievements included the remote Minaret of Jam. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the Khwarazmian dynasty, another dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin, in 1215.
In 1219 CE, Genghis Khan and his Mongol army overran the region. His troops reportedly annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh as well as Bamyan. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of Timur (also known as Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol warrior who established the Timurid Empire in 1370. Under the rule of Shah Rukh, the city of Herat served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance, whose glory matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.
In the early 16th century Babur, a Timurid prince from Ferghana, captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty. Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty, who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate, in the First Battle of Panipat. Between the 16th and 18th century, the territory was divided among the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara, Iranian Safavids, and Indian Mughals. During the medieval period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name Khorasan, which was commonly used up to the 19th century among natives to describe their country.
Hotak dynasty
In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated George XI (Gurgin Khan), the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom. Mirwais died in 1715, and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais's son Mahmud for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of Isfahan, and captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by Nader Shah after the 1729 Battle of Damghan.
In 1738, Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar in the siege of Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah Hussain Hotak. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces invaded India, Nader Shah had plundered Delhi, alongside his 16-year-old commander, Ahmad Shah Durrani who had assisted him on these campaigns. Nader Shah was assassinated in 1747.
Durrani Empire
Ahmad Shah Durrani formally established the Durrani Empire in 1748; it is considered foundational polity of modern Afghanistan. He launched two campaigns into Khorasan, 1750–1751 and 1754–1755, and by the time of his death, his empire encompassed large parts in west and south Asia. However, the Durrani state had begun crumbling even during his lifetime, and by the early 19th century, it was under threat from the Qajar Iran in the west and the Sikh Empire in the east.
Barakzai dynasty and British wars
Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. Fateh Khan was brutally murdered in 1818 by Mahmud Shah Durrani. As a result, the brothers of Fateh Khan and the Barakzai tribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states, including the Pashtun-ruled emirates of Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat; Uzbek-ruled khanates of Kunduz and Maimana, and numerous other warring polities. To the north Emirate of Badakhshan also became independent. The most prominent state was the Emirate of Kabul, ruled by Dost Mohammad Khan.
In 1837, Wazir Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to capture the Jamrud Fort from the Sikh Empire, but killed Sikh commander Hari Singh Nalwa, thus ending the Afghan–Sikh wars. Dost Muhammad Khan slowly consolidated his power following the British retreat in the First Anglo-Afghan War in 1842; he successively captured Balkh (1850) and Kandahar (1856), and after Iranian departure from Herat under Treaty of Paris in 1857, he conquered Herat as well in 1863. He is sometimes viewed as founder of modern Afghanistan.
Following the Second Anglo-Afghan War, Abdur Rahman Khan became emir with British backing in 1880. In 1893, Abdur Rahman formally signed and finalised the Afghan border with British India, after which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line, which forms the modern-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Hazara dominated Hazaristan and non-Muslim Kafiristan remained politically independent. Hazaristan was conquered in 1888–1893 after three rebellions, with Kafiristan being annexed by Afghans in 1895–1896; the events saw widespread atrocities and forced religious conversion. Abdur Rahman Khan was known as the "Iron Amir" for features of his rule and his ruthless methods against tribes. He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan.
How can a small power like Afghanistan, which is like a goat between these lions [Britain and Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?