Realm
Mamluk dynasty in Egypt and Syria (868–905)
The Tulunid State, also known as the Tulunid Emirate or the State of Banu Tulun, and popularly referred to as the Tulunids was a Mamluk dynasty of Turkic origin who ruled Egypt on behalf of the Abbasid Caliphate. They were autonomous from 868 until 905, when the Abbasids restored the Tulunid domains to their control.
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Text from the Wikipedia article “Tulunids”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.
The Tulunid State, also known as the Tulunid Emirate or the State of Banu Tulun, and popularly referred to as the Tulunids (Arabic: الطولونيون) was a Mamluk dynasty of Turkic origin who ruled Egypt on behalf of the Abbasid Caliphate. They were autonomous from 868 until 905, when the Abbasids restored the Tulunid domains to their control.
The Tulunid State emerged during a period marked by the growing power of the Turkic military within the Abbasid Caliphate. This was a time when the Turkic guard exerted control over the empire's affairs, and when ethnic Shu'ubiyya and separatist tendencies began to emerge among the various peoples and governors of the vast Abbasid territories. The establishment of the Tulunid State was one of the inevitable outcomes of this growing sentiment. In the late 9th century, internal conflict amongst the Abbasids made control of the outlying areas of the empire increasingly tenuous, and in 868 the Turkic officer Ahmad ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt. He subsequently achieved nominal autonomy from the central Abbasid government. During his reign (868–884) and those of his successors, the Tulunid domains were expanded to include Jordan Rift Valley, as well as Hejaz, Cyprus and Crete. Ahmad was succeeded by his son Khumarawayh, whose military and diplomatic achievements made him a major player in the Middle Eastern political stage. The Abbasids affirmed their recognition of the Tulunids as legitimate rulers, and the dynasty's status as vassals to the caliphate. After Khumarawayh's death, his successor emirs were ineffectual rulers, allowing their Turkic and black slave-soldiers to run the affairs of the state. In 905, the Tulunids were unable to resist an invasion by the Abbasid troops, who restored direct caliphal rule in Syria and Egypt.
The Tulunid period was marked by economic and administrative reforms alongside cultural ones. Ahmad ibn Tulun changed the taxation system and aligned himself with the merchant community. He also established the Tulunid army. The capital was moved from Fustat to al-Qata'i, where the celebrated mosque of Ibn Tulun was constructed.
Shu'ubiyya tendency is characterized by a preference for non-Arab "Ajam" over Arab "tribes". The etymology of this term can be traced back to an interpretation of a Quranic verse: "and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another." (Quran 49:13). Some interpreters have proposed that the term "peoples" in this context may be understood to refer to "civilized peoples". This inclination first manifested during the Abbasid Caliphate, emerging as a consequence of several factors, most notably the ethnic diversity that characterized the vast Abbasid state and the appointment of non-Arabs to positions within the courts and administrative apparatus of the Abbasid caliphs.
In establishing their rule, the Abbasids relied on the Persians, who held resentment towards the Umayyads. This was in contrast to the Umayyads, who relied on Arab elements to manage their state and lead their armies. In return for their support, the early Abbasid caliphs rewarded their Persian allies by appointing them to ministerial and military leadership roles. However, these caliphs soon came to recognize that the influence of Persian ministers had surpassed their own, leading them to eliminate them. For example, Abū Jaʿfar al-Manṣūr killed his minister Abu Muslim al-Khurasani, and Harun al-Rashid executed his minister Jaʽfar ibn Yahya Barmaki and persecuted his family. This political struggle between Persians and Arabs at the dawn of the Abbasid era gave rise to the Shu'ubiyya movement, which sought to elevate non-Arab peoples above Arabs. This movement asserted that these peoples were superior in terms of civilization, literature, and poetry. A lengthy debate ensued between the two sides, with each faction being represented by its poets, writers, and politicians. This schism among the population of the state eventually resulted in the emergence of the inaugural separatist movements against the Abbasid Caliphate, spearheaded by the military commander Tahir ibn Husayn, who established the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan in 821 CE.
The internal factors that encouraged the spread of separatist movements included the vast expanse of the Abbasid Caliphate, which had grown into an empire stretching across the region from the borders of China to the central Maghreb in North Africa. However, this vastness, rather than providing a source of strength for the state, became a source of weakness, contributing to its disintegration and fragmentation. The considerable distance between the various parts of the empire and its capital, coupled with the inherent difficulties of communication in that era, permitted governors in distant provinces to exceed the limits of their authority and govern their regions independently, without concern for the armies dispatched from the capital to suppress their separatist movements, which often arrived too late to be of any consequence. The weakness of the caliphs further exacerbated these issues, enabling them to fester and weaken the state. The governors exploited this weakness, with some even residing in Baghdad and sending deputies to manage their provinces. These deputies, in turn, began seeking independence for their regions, transforming their positions into hereditary roles passed down to their sons. As a result, small states emerged that were only nominally connected to the Abbasid Caliphate.
The Umayyads were the first to bring the Turkic from their lands after their conversion to Islam, employing them in their armies and state apparatus. Following the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate and the ascendance of the Abbasid Caliphate, which was consolidated under the leadership of Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, several Turkic individuals began to assume prominent roles within the Abbasid court, as their numbers increased. The Abbasid caliphs of the early Abbasid era employed them in their palaces, entrusted them with confidential information, and assigned them the responsibility of ensuring their safety. Abu Ja'far al-Mansur was the first Abbasid caliph to integrate the Turks as intimate associates and officials, placing his confidence in Hamad al-Turki, who subsequently became one of his most trusted confidants and aides. Such was the extent of his trust in him that he entrusted him alone with the state's records, carrying the key to the records in his sleeve.
Al-Mansur eschewed the employment of Arabs in his palaces, refusing to allow any Arab to serve in his court or harem. Instead, he favored other groups, such as the Turks. He was the first to appoint them as chamberlains, selecting Hamad al-Turki as his chamberlain after the state was firmly established, and also appointing him as governor of the Sawad region. Abū Abd Allāh al-Mahdī also employed several Turks in his palaces, including Shakir al-Turki, a military leader in Fars, and Faraj al-Khadim, who subsequently became prominent during the reign of Harun al-Rashid. Additionally, he appointed Yahya ibn Sa'id al-Harashi as governor of Egypt in 778 CE.
The Turkic soldiers played a significant role during al-Mahdi's reign, notably in suppressing the Kharijites when they rebelled under Abdul Salam al-Yashkuri in 776 CE in Bajarma. Harun al-Rashid further expanded the use of Turks in his palaces, departments, and army, with Abu Salim Faraj al-Khadim al-Turki becoming one of his military leaders. In 786 CE, al-Rashid appointed Abu Salim Faraj al-Khadim al-Turki to oversee the reconstruction and completion of the city of Tarsus. Another prominent Turkic aide was Masrour the servant, who was one of the closest individuals to Harun al-Rashid and whom the caliph trusted immensely. Masrur was assigned the task of eliminating Ja'far ibn Yahya al-Barmaki, a prominent figure in the Abbasid court and a close associate of the caliph. He carried out this mission with precision and success. Harun al-Rashid's entourage included numerous Turkic, and he employed Odalisque from Fergana and Osrushana, some of whom became favorites. One such example is Maridah bint Shabib, the mother of al-Mu'tasim, a Turkic woman who held a special place with the caliph.
Similarly, Abu Ja'far Abdullah al-Ma'mun also employed Turks in his palaces and armies, recruiting them from Transoxiana following their conversion to Islam. Their delegations were numerous and frequent, and he was renowned for his magnanimity towards the Turkic rulers who visited him. Some of these Turks attained prominent positions of authority, such as Tulun, the father of Ahmad, who was the founder of the Tulunid state, and Kha'us, who was appointed by al-Ma'mun as governor of Osrushana. His son, Khaydhar ibn Kawus al-Afshin, became one of al-Ma'mun's most prominent military commanders and played a pivotal role in suppressing numerous rebellions. Upon al-Mu'tasim's ascension to the caliphate, the conflict between Arabs and Persians, who had gained favor during the early years of al-Ma'mun's rule, had intensified, disrupting the balance between the various factions within the Abbasid state. This resulted in the emergence of Persian-backed movements opposing the state, which led al-Mu'tasim to lose trust in the Persians.
Conversely, al-Mu'tasim did not place his trust in the Arabs, nor did he rely on them as a source of support. This was because they had a history of rebellions and unrest against the caliphs. Furthermore, they had forfeited a considerable portion of their political and military influence, thereby reducing their capacity to pose a significant threat and diminishing their importance. These circumstances prompted al-Mu'tasim to place his security in the hands of a unit of Turkic soldiers, whose psychological and physical attributes were deemed to be well-suited to their role. This Turkic element subsequently exerted considerable influence on the political and social fabric of the caliphate, becoming a pivotal element during Al-Mu'tasim's tenure. To ensure the stability of his rule and the continued existence of the caliphate in the context of the Arab-Persian conflict, al-Mu'tasim employed the Turks extensively in his army, placing them under the command of Turkic leaders. This action had a significant impact on the Arab commanders and soldiers, as well as on the traditional policy of Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, which aimed to maintain a balance in the army between Arab and non-Arab factions. Al-Mu'tasim resettled the Turks in the city of Samarra, which he had specifically constructed for them.
The capital of the Abbasid caliphate was moved to Samarra, which served as the seat of the Abbasid state for almost fifty years and became the center of the new Turkic dominance. From the time of al-Mu'tasim, prominent Turkic figures began to emerge on the political scene and play a significant role in public life. Among them were al-Afshin, Ashinas, Itakh, Wasif, and Sima al-Dimashqi, who served the state and supported it in its internal wars against various insurgent movements in its territories, as well as in its external wars against the Byzantine Empire. Over time, these Turks began to seek their power base, either within the Caliphate or independently, as some of them began to aspire to control the affairs of the capital, realizing that the Caliphate could not function without their services. The caliphate of Abū Jaʿfar al-Wathiq marked a transitional period between two eras: the first was the period of Turkic control over the affairs of the state while maintaining the prestige of the caliphate, and the second was the period of Turkic dominance coupled with the decline of the prestige of the caliphate and the diminishing status of the caliphs.
During al-Wathiq's reign, the Turks consolidated their power and their leaders gained significant influence, to the point that the caliph had to grant Ashnas the title of 'Sultan', recognizing his authority beyond mere military duties. Ashnas became the first person to be granted the title of Sultan by a Caliph and was entrusted with the administration of the Upper Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. Similarly, Itakh was appointed governor of Khorasan, Sindh, and the districts along the Tigris. As a result of this expansion of authority, the Turks' influence grew both inside and outside Iraq, enabling them to dominate the Abbasid court and effectively control all of its provinces.
The Turks then took another significant step by asserting control over the caliph himself, thereby ensuring the continuity of their power. They monitored his movements and participated in political discussions. To maintain this control, they did not proceed directly to their appointed provinces; instead, they delegated deputies to manage them. This strategy constituted a pivotal stage in the eventual disintegration of the centralized authority, as the deputies strove for autonomy, capitalizing on the frailty of the central power and the caliph's lack of awareness of the circumstances prevailing in the provinces. They relied on the Turks they had appointed. To consolidate their control over the caliphate, the Turks began to interfere in the selection and appointment of caliphs. Al-Wathiq was the final caliph to be appointed by the traditional methods. Upon his death, without designating his young son Muhammad as his successor, a power struggle ensued between two principal factions concerning the selection of the subsequent caliph. The first faction comprised high-ranking state officials, including members of the Abbasid family, the vizier Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat, and the Chief Judge Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad, who expressed support for the candidacy of Muhammad ibn al-Wathiq. The second faction was the ascendant Turkic power, which nominated Ja'far ibn al-Mutawakkil and successfully imposed him as caliph under the title "al-Mutawakkil 'ala Allah."
Text from the Wikipedia article “Tulunids”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.