The Federal Republic of Central America (Spanish: República Federal de Centro América), initially known as the United Provinces of Central America (Provincias Unidas del Centro de América), was a sovereign state in Central America that existed between 1823 and 1839/1841. The republic was composed of five states (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua), and a Federal District from 1835 to 1839. Guatemala City was its capital city until 1834, when the seat of government was relocated to San Salvador. The Federal Republic of Central America was bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south by Gran Colombia and on the east by the Kingdom of Mosquitia and British Honduras, both claimed by the federal republic.
After Central America (then the Captaincy General of Guatemala) declared its independence from the Spanish Empire in September 1821, it was annexed by the First Mexican Empire in January 1822 before regaining its independence and forming a federal republic in 1823. The Federal Republic of Central America adopted its constitution, based on that of the federal government of the United States, in November 1824. It held its first presidential election in April 1825, during which liberal politician Manuel José Arce was elected as the country's first president. Arce subsequently aligned himself with the country's conservatives due to liberal opposition to the concessions he granted conservatives to secure his election as president. The republic was politically unstable, experiencing civil wars, rebellions, and insurrections by liberals and conservatives. From 1827 to 1829, it fell into a civil war between conservatives who supported Arce and liberals who opposed him. Liberal politician Francisco Morazán led the liberals to victory, and was elected president in 1830. The republic descended into a second civil war from 1838 to 1840, by the end of which the states of Central America declared independence and the federal republic ceased to exist.
Historians have attributed the country's political instability to its federal system of government and its economic struggles. Agricultural exports were insufficient and the federal government was unable to repay its foreign loans, despite favorable terms. Central America's economic troubles were caused in part by the federal government's inability to collect taxes and inadequate interstate infrastructure.
Central American politicians, writers, and intellectuals have called for the reunification of Central America since the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America. There have been several attempts by the republic's successor states during the 19th and 20th centuries to reunify Central America through diplomatic and military means, but none succeeded in uniting all five former members for more than one year. All five former members of the Federal Republic of Central America are members of the Central American Integration System (SICA), an economic and political organization that promotes regional development.
Names
The country's initial name, adopted at independence from the First Mexican Empire on 1 July 1823, was the United Provinces of Central America (Spanish: Provincias Unidas del Centro de América). Upon the adoption of the country's constitution on 22 November 1824, the United Provinces of Central America changed its name to the Federal Republic of Central America (República Federal de Centro América). In the years shortly after independence, some official government documents referred to the country as the Federated States of Central America (Estados Federados del Centro de América). The federal republic has also been referred to as the Federation of Central America (Federación de Centro América).
Background
Colonial Central America
The Spanish conquered Central America in the 16th century. The region was divided into several audiencias (jurisdictions) until, in 1542, it was organized into a single audiencia extending north to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and south to the Isthmus of Panama. Spain transferred control of the Yucatán Peninsula to New Spain (modern-day Mexico) in 1560, and transferred control of Panama to Peru seven years later. In 1568, the Central American audiencia was reorganized as the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The captaincy was subdivided into corregimientos, gobiernos, greater mayorships, and intendancies.
Central America had a caste system, with Spaniards at the top, mixed-race individuals in the middle, and Africans and indigenous Central Americans at the bottom. Spaniards owned most of the region's land and wealth, and indigenous people composed most of its labor force. The Catholic Church dominated all aspects of Central American society during Spanish colonial rule. Although the region's indigenous inhabitants were gradually forced by colonial officials to convert to Catholicism, they retained many of their cultural traditions.
Central American independence
The Spanish king Ferdinand VII was overthrown in 1808 by the French emperor Napoleon, who installed his brother Joseph as king of Spain. Spain's colonies in the Americas (including the Captaincy General of Guatemala) did not recognize Joseph as the legitimate king and established provisional governments, known as juntas, which continued to recognize Ferdinand as king. Although the Central American colonial government remained loyal to Ferdinand, some criollo leaders in Central America wanted greater autonomy. In November 1811, José Matías Delgado and Manuel José Arce launched a rebellion in San Salvador against Spanish rule which was defeated by loyalist forces. Additional independence rebellions occurred in December 1811 in Nicaragua; in 1813 in Guatemala; and in 1814 in San Salvador. All were defeated by loyalist forces, but pro-independence sentiment spread among Central American leaders.
The Cortes of Cádiz (a Spanish constitutional congress in Cádiz) drafted the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which made Spain a constitutional monarchy. Ferdinand repealed the liberal constitution after returning to power in 1814, since he wanted to rule as an absolute monarch. His refusal to rule as a constitutional monarch and the desire of colonial leaders for greater local autonomy led to independence rebellions throughout Spain's American colonies. The rebellions were primarily led by liberals who supported the 1812 constitution's Enlightenment ideals. Conservatives joined the independence movements in 1820, when Ferdinand was forced by Colonel Rafael del Riego to restore the 1812 constitution. On 15 September 1821, Central American colonial leaders declared independence from Spain and signed the Act of Independence of Central America. They established the Consultive Junta to temporarily govern the region until a permanent government could be established. Most government administrators, including Brigadier General Gabino Gaínza (the final captain general of Guatemala), retained their positions.
After independence, Central American leaders were ideologically divided about whether to remain independent or to join the First Mexican Empire; monarchists supported annexation, opposed by republicans and nationalists. Mexican Regent (and later Mexican Emperor) Agustín de Iturbide asked the Consultive Junta to join the First Mexican Empire in November 1821, and the junta voted for annexation on 5 January 1822. The Mexicans sent Brigadier General Vicente Filísola to enforce the annexation. Liberals in Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua resisted Mexican attempts to annex the region. Liberals and conservatives fought in Costa Rica's Ochomogo War, which ended with the liberals gaining control of the country. Liberal rebels in El Salvador, led by Delgado and Arce, resisted two invasions by Filísola in 1822 and 1823. The former ended with an armistice and Mexican withdrawal; the latter resulted in Filísola overthrowing Delgado as the political leader of El Salvador (forcing Arce to flee to the United States) and capturing the city of San Salvador. General José Anacleto Ordóñez launched a rebellion against conservative Nicaraguan political leader Miguel González Saravia y Colarte, capturing several cities. Ordóñez's rebellion continued after Central America declared its independence from Mexico.
On 19 March 1823, Iturbide abdicated the Mexican throne. When news of Iturbide's abdication reached Filísola on 29 March, he called for Central American political leaders to establish a congress to determine the region's future. The Mexican Constituent Congress ordered Mexican forces in Central America to cease hostilities on 1 April, and the Central American congress convened on 24 June. Except for the state of Chiapas, it declared Central American independence from Mexico on 1 July.
History
National Constituent Assembly
Drafting the constitution
At Central America's independence from Mexico, the Central American congress established the United Provinces of Central America. The following day, the congress reorganized as the National Constituent Assembly and tasked itself with drafting a constitution for newly-independent Central America. José Matías Delgado was Central America's provisional president until 10 July 1823, when the National Constituent Assembly appointed a triumvirate consisting of Arce, Juan Vicente Villacorta and Pedro Molina Mazariegos. Since Arce was in the United States when the triumvirate was established, Antonio Rivera Cabezas was appointed as his substitute. The three rotated executive power on a monthly basis.
Initially, the National Constituent Assembly was composed of delegates from El Salvador and Guatemala; Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua did not send their delegates until October 1823, refusing to send them until Mexican soldiers withdrew from Central America. The National Constituent Assembly consisted of 64 delegates, distributed across Central America. The National Constituent Assembly was the de facto government of Central America until the constitution was adopted. Its two political factions were the liberals and the conservatives; the liberals supported federalism, and the conservatives supported centralism.
The National Constituent Assembly drafted the constitution on 12 June 1824, and published it on 4 July. The constitution was inspired by the federal government of the United States, the United States Declaration of Independence, and the Spanish Constitution of 1812. On 22 November, the constitution was formally adopted after all 64 members of the assembly signed it. The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 23 January 1825, and was succeeded by the Federal Congress on 6 February.
Guatemalan mutiny
On 14 September 1823, Captain Rafael Ariza y Torres began an insurrection in Guatemala City (the capital city) because the Central American government was unable to pay its debts to the military. Although Ariza pledged his loyalty to the National Constituent Assembly, many assembly members fled the city and called on soldiers from Chiquimula, Quetzaltenango, and San Salvador to suppress the insurrection. Neither Ariza's rebels nor Colonel José Rivas and his 750 soldiers from San Salvador wanted a battle. Conservatives took advantage of the situation, and forced the triumvirate to resign on 6 October. They installed a second, less-liberal triumvirate consisting of Arce, José Cecilio del Valle, and Tomás O'Horan. Since Arce and Valle were outside the country when the second triumvirate was formed, José Santiago Milla and Villacorta were substitutes. Valle and Arce did not sit on the triumvirate until February and March 1824, respectively.
The second triumvirate ordered Rivas to march 150 soldiers into Guatemala City and, soon afterwards, Ariza fled into exile in Mexico. The National Constituent Assembly then returned to Guatemala City. The Salvadoran government ordered Rivas to remain near Guatemala City and verify that the assembly was functioning. On 12 October 1823, Rivas determined that the National Constituent Assembly was suppressing civil liberties and marched back into the city. On 17 October, believing that Rivas was acting on behalf of El Salvador, 200 soldiers from Quetzaltenango arrived in Guatemala City and skirmished with his forces. After a few days, the assembly drafted an agreement to appease both sides. Rivas' forces withdrew to El Salvador, and the soldiers from Quetzaltenango returned home.
Internal conflict in Nicaragua
Liberals and conservatives had been fighting for control of Nicaragua since Ordóñez launched his rebellion against the pro-Mexico Nicaraguan government in 1823. The liberals had control of León (the liberal capital) and Granada, and the conservatives controlled Managua (the conservative capital), Rivas and Chinandega. Clashes resulted in hundreds of deaths. In October 1824, the second triumvirate sent Colonel Manuel Arzú to attempt to mediate peace between the liberals and conservatives. The mediation failed, and Arce led a federal invasion of Nicaragua on 22 January 1825 to end the civil conflict. His invading force got the liberals and conservatives to sign an armistice without engaging in combat. Arce dissolved both rival governments, and their leaders were exiled from Nicaragua.
Presidency of Manuel José Arce
1825 election
The federal republic's first presidential election was held on 21 April 1825. Arce was the liberals' candidate, and Valle the conservatives' choice. During the election, 41 of the 82 electors voted for Valle; 34 voted for Arce, four voted for other candidates, and three did not vote due to complications in receiving votes from their electoral districts. No candidate received a majority; the constitution required a majority, and the Federal Congress was tasked with electing the president instead. The congress voted 22–5 to elect Arce president. Valle was entitled to become vice president since he was the runner-up in the election, but refused to accept the position; so did liberal José Francisco Barrundia. Ultimately, the conservative Mariano Beltranena became Arce's vice president. Arce and Beltranena took office on 29 April.
Arce's electoral victory angered conservatives who backed Valle, and alienated liberals (particularly Guatemalan liberals) because he had won the votes of conservative senators by promising to allow the Federal Congress to decide if a Catholic archdiocese would be created in El Salvador; the conservatives opposed the archdiocese because Delgado, a liberal symbol of Salvadoran independence, would have become archbishop. The liberals considered Arce's compromise with the conservatives as betraying his liberal positions. Liberals Molina Mazariegos and Mariano Gálvez refused to accept cabinet appointments as secretary of relations and secretary of finance, respectively, due to this perceived betrayal. Arce appointed conservatives to his cabinet as a result, which led to liberals continuing to accuse him of betraying the liberal cause.