The Warring States period (c. 475 – 221 BC) in Chinese history comprises the final centuries of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynastic state in East Asian history. It saw developments in philosophy, commerce, agriculture, the arts, and society at large.
While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, Sima Qian's choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to the second half of the Eastern Zhou period, when the king of Zhou formally ruled as Chinese sovereign, but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The term "Warring States period" comes from the Record of the Warring States, a work of history compiled during the early Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). It was also named such because of how the scale of warfare exploded during this period.
Geography
In 450 BC there existed eight large states: Yan in the north and Yue in the east, though these two did not play any decisive role in the Warring States period that went on almost without end for the next 225 years. The "Big Six" were Qi, Chu, Qin, and the "Three Jins," being Wei, Han and Zhao. There were also plenty of smaller principalities, all of which would become part of the larger states.
In the beginning of the Warring States period, however, there were seven powerful states: Qin in the west, Qi in the east, Chu in the south, Yan in the north, and the "Three Jins" of Wei, Han, and Zhao, located in the central region, with Han in the south, Wei in the middle, and Zhao in the north.
History
The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around the 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China.
The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.
The decline of the Zhou house began with the transfer of the capital from Shensi to the east in 770 BC. Nearly 150 years later, though, it would become weak, as seen in the formula used by the King to invest Duke Wen of Jin as Lord Protector (Pa):
Oh, my Uncle! Illustrious were the Kings Wen and Wu; they knew how to take care of their shining virtue, which rose with splendor on High (toward Heaven) and whose renown spread wide on earth. This is why the Sovereign of On-High made the Mandate succeed in the case of the Kinds Wen and Wu. Have pity on me! Cause me to continue (the line of my ancestors); Me, the Unique Man and cause (me and my line) to be perpetually on the throne!
Partition of Jin (453–403 BC)
By 453, Jin, one of the most powerful states of the Spring and Autumn period was undergoing a civil war between its four ruling families; the Han, Wei, Zhao and Zhi clans. The Zhi clan, led by Zhi Yao was the most powerful and influential of the four and demanded land from all three clans as a show of submission. Only the Zhao clan refused and was besieged by the other three at Jinyang (modern-day Taiyuan). Zhao, however, was aware that the other two clans were only coerced into joining and convinced them to betray Zhi by flooding his camp. Zhi Yao and his family were exterminated, and his skull was presented to Zhao Wuxu, who used it as a drinking cup. This is marked as the beginning of the Warring States period.
Around this time there existed a Son of Heaven; a member of the Zhou house, whose authority other than the borders of the minuscule enclave by the rulers of the great states was practically non-existent. For centuries the kings of Zhou were no more than symbolic figures who maintained the calendar and performed periodic ritual sacrifices, upon which the relationship of Heaven, Earth, and Man stood.
Early Warring States
The Three Jins recognized (403–376 BC)
In 403 BC, the court of King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized the viscounts (zi 子) of Zhao, Wei and Han as marquises, (hou 侯) after they conquered Jin. In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, marking the end of the Jin state.
Qi usurpation under Tian (391–386 BC)
Qin, Qi, and Chu states would all greatly benefit from the fall of Jin, with Qi undergoing the most change, and controlled the Zhou cultural sphere, though Qi would eventually falter.
The Tian family, who were invaluable to the Qi rulers, would achieve complete dominance over the political sphere by usurping power and title. Tian then divided half of Qi as a puppet state, exiling the current ruler to a rural town, and the other half for their own complete control. When the Qi ruler died with no successor, the Tians would be recognized by the Zhou and delegate power over the state to Grand Duke Wang, though the Zhou would only do this to avoid getting overpowered by other states.
Politics of Wei (369-335 BC)
In 369 BC, Marquess Wen of Wei would ascend the throne of Wei and become the leader of the Wei family. With the help of the Three Qins, they besieged the Qi territory (located in modern-day Pingyuan County, Shandong.) Marquess Wen of Wei would also lead the Three Jins against the Chu state in response to their routine occupations. In 400 BC, Chu would be defeated. Marquess Wen would lead Wei to become the mightiest state in China, with even one of Confucius' old students, named Bu Shang, became Wei's court tutor and numerous strategists at their disposal.
King Hui of Wei ascended the throne of Wei one year later in 370 BC. Thanks to his predecessors and a great geographical position, King Hui of Wei was able to have several states enter an alliance under King Hui's supervision. However, due to the excellent position Wei was in (similar to Jin before its partition) King Hui frequently was limited by the other states in what he was able to accomplish. Later, in 340 BC, Qi would attack Wei, and Wei would only survive because Chu came to its assistance. Finally, in 335 BC, King Hui would resolve and end the conflict with the Qi ruler. The two met and both took the title of "King," (wang, 王, until this, Hui had previously the title of a marquess (hou, 侯) presumably ending the conflict between the two.
Shang Yang reforms Qin (358–338 BC)
Shang Yang worked for Prime Minister Gongshy Zuo. After being rejected as a successor to the duke of Wey, Shang Yang decided to offer his services outside of Wey. Later, Duke Xiao of Qin began calling for talented men to serve him, which captured Shang Yang's attention, in hopes for money and status. When he presented his ideas, court officials objected to them, labeling them as radical, but Duke Xiao would be swayed by his plans and made Shang Yang Prime Minister. He would remain in power for 20 years.
Once one of the most backward states, Shang Yang made major reforms to Qin, including new taxation systems, government management of the economy, standardization of measures and weights, promotion of the nuclear family and, as many writers emphasized, a harsh legal code. One could be cut in two if they harbored a fugitive, and severe punishments were delivered for relatively minor crimes. Shang Yang would also divide the lands of Qin into counties, which was determined according to the duke's court ruler. He delegated magistrates to rule over these counties, and since these magistrates had no political loyalty, Shang Yang was able to create the first true state-wide bureaucracy in China. He also began an official census, which would help in delivering punishment to the entire family, another aspect of legalistic Chinese philosophy. Rewards for good behavior were also given, though the punishments left a more lasting mark than rewards did. One even had the potential for one to attain patrician status, which upset the patricians, who were held up by their ancient status. Shang Yang would fall from power when he was declared an outlaw by the government and would be killed by the Qin armies in 338 BC.
Qin's further aggression & response (338–320 BC)
After Wei and Qi resolved their conflict, Qin began to expand extensively. They defeated several nomadic tribes to their north and had begun to take fertile land in their southwest, (modern-day upper Yangzi river) to which Chu was unable to deal with as they were already taking the fallen lands of Wu and Yue, and had no choice but to let Qin take their land, improving Qin's geographical position. In 325 BC, in a display of independence, Huiwen of Qin would symbolically declare himself king of Qin, no longer under any state's rule. In response, all other states except Chu (who had already declared royalty centuries before) also adopted the title of king (wang, 王), which caused the title to lose its superiority, though the Zhou still held the title as Sons of Heaven.
Horizontal and vertical alliances (320–256 BC)
Qin became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of many states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, forming the "Vertical Alliances" (hézòng, 合纵), led by Su Qin in an attempt to stop Qin from advancing. To counter this and continue expansion, Qin would force many of its surrounding states to join the "Horizontal Alliances" (liánhéng, 連橫) led by Zhang Yi. The actions of these alliances are found in the Zhan Guo Ce.
First vertical alliance
In 321 BC, the king of Qi grew concerned over the rise in Qin's power. He would send Lord Mengchang as an emissary to Chu to form an alliance against Qin, which was accepted. Later, in 319 BC, King Hui of Wei died and his successor demanded Qin to leave the protectorate it was establishing. Acting on behalf of Wei, Qi and Chu attacked Qin, with the assistance of the Han, Zhao, and Yan, in 318 BC, though disputes over who would lead the campaign would end shortly after a failed attack at the Hangu Pass, which would allow Qin to take even more land. Ten years later, the same states attempted to recreate the alliance against Qin, but it failed after Qin bribed Chu to influence Qi and discourage the alliance, which then disbanded. The plot was so successful that in 302 BC, the states of Qin, Qi, and Chu would form an alliance, and Long Mengchang was appointed as a minister of Qin. Further political disruption continued as "the cycle of abortive alliances continued." Later, this allowed Qin to invade Zhou and end their line of monarchs in 256 BC.
Decimation of Qi
In 319 BC, King Xuan of Qi ascended the throne of Qi. After noticing the opportunity to seize power from the neighboring state of Yan, he began planning to take control of Yan. He placed Mencius, the most notable adherent of Confucianism in a high power in his government in order to have him give the green light to attack Yan, which was granted, though none of the requirements in order for Yan's ruler to be changed per the Mandate of Heaven were met. Despite this, Qi sent troops to attack Yan, which was a staggering success, with the people of Yan welcoming the new heir to the throne placed by Qi, which would act as a puppet state. Eventually, King Xuan withdrew his soldiers from Yan. After the death of King Xuan in 284 BC, an alliance of states lead under the guidance the Zhao began to attack Qi and assassinated the king, and began to loot and pillage Qi. Yan would hold control over Qi until 279 BC, whereupon the state of Qi would be restored and military forces would be withdrawn, thought Qi was severely stunted by this.
Qin unites China (230–221 BC)
King Zhuangxiang of Qin ruled for only three years. He was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at his coronation. As an adult, Zheng became a brilliant commander who, in the span of just ten years, as seen below, unified China. Though not mentioned here, Qin would later, in the 4th century, subjugate almost all western territories (modern day Gansu province and the greater Lanzhou area.)