Oaxaca de Juárez (Spanish pronunciation: [waˈxaka ðe ˈxwaɾes]), or simply Oaxaca (Valley Zapotec: Ndua), is the capital and largest city of the eponymous Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is the municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of Oaxaca, the most populous municipality in Oaxaca, and the fourth most densely populated municipality in Oaxaca, only being less densely populated than San Jacinto Amilpas, Santa Lucía del Camino, and Santa Cruz Amilpas. It is in the Centro District in the Central Valleys region of the state, in the foothills of the Sierra Madre at the base of the Cerro del Fortín, extending to the banks of the Atoyac River.
Heritage tourism is an important part of the city's economy, and it includes numerous colonial-era structures, significant archeological sites, and elements of the continuing native Zapotec and Mixtec cultures. The city, together with the nearby archeological site of Monte Albán, was designated in 1987 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is the site of the month-long cultural festival called the "Guelaguetza", which features Oaxacan dance from the seven regions, music, and a beauty pageant for indigenous women.
The city is also known as la Verde Antequera (the green Antequera) due to its prior Spanish name (Nueva Antequera) and the variety of structures built from a native green stone. The name Oaxaca is derived from the Nahuatl name for the place, Huaxyacac, which was Hispanicized to Guajaca, later spelled Oaxaca. In 1872, "de Juárez" was added in honor of Benito Juárez, a native of this state who became president, serving from 1852 to 1872, and leading the country through challenges, including an invasion by France. The Zapotec name of the city, Ndua, is still used in the Zapotec language (Tlacolula Zapotec). The coat of arms for the municipality bears the image of Donají, a Zapotec woman hostage killed and beheaded by the Mixtec in conflict immediately after the Conquest.
History
Early settlements
The Zapotec and Mixtec peoples had settlements in the valley of Oaxaca for thousands of years, especially in connection with the important ancient centers of Monte Albán and Mitla. The modern city of Oaxaca developed relatively near them. The Aztecs entered the valley in 1440 and named it "Huaxyacac", a Nahuatl phrase meaning "among the huaje" (Leucaena leucocephala) trees. They created a strategic military position at what is now called the Cerro (large hill) del Fortín to oversee the Zapotec capital of Zaachila and secure the trade route between the Valley of Mexico, Tehuantepec, and what is now Central America.
When the Spanish arrived in 1521, the Zapotec and the Mixtec were involved in one of their many wars. The Spanish conquest ended this fighting, imposing a kind of imperial peace on the area. At the same time, Spanish Catholic missionaries began evangelizing the indigenous peoples, urging them to convert.
Colonial period
The first Spanish expedition to Oaxaca arrived late in 1521, headed by Captain Francisco de Orozco, who was accompanied by 400 Aztec warriors. Hernán Cortés sent Francisco de Orozco to Oaxaca because Moctezuma II had said that the Aztecs' gold came from there. The Spanish expedition under Orozco set about building a Spanish city where the Aztec military post was at the base of the Cerro de Fortín.
Chaplain Juan Díaz gave the first mass in Oaxaca on the bank of the Atoyac River under a large huaje tree, where the Church of San Juan de Dios would be constructed later. This same chaplain added saints' names to the surrounding villages, in addition to keeping their Nahuatl names: Santa María Oaxaca, San Martín Mexicapan, San Juan Chapultepec, Santo Tomas Xochimilco, San Matías Jalatlaco, Santiago Tepeaca, etc. This group of Spaniards chose their first mayor, Gutierres de Badajoc, and their first town council, and began construction of the cathedral of Oaxaca in 1522. Their name for the settlement was Guajaca, a Hispanization of the Nahuatl name used by the Aztec (it was later spelled as Oaxaca).
The relatively independent village did not suit Hernán Cortés, who wanted to control power over the entire region. Cortés sent Pedro de Alvarado, who drove out most of the village's population. The original Spanish settlers appealed to the Spanish crown to recognize the village they founded, which it did in 1526, dividing the land among the Spaniards of Orozco's expedition. But three months later, Cortés forced the village's population out once again and replaced the town council with his own appointees. The founders appealed again to Spanish royal authority, this time to the viceroy in Mexico City, Nuño de Guzmán. He also sided with the founders; they reestablished the town in 1529, naming it Antequera, in honor of Nuño de Guzmán's hometown. Francisco de Herrera convened the new, Crown-approved town council. Juan Peláez de Berrio platted the new settlement.
In the meantime, Cortés gained from the crown the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, which contains the disputed village. This enabled him to demand high taxes in the area and to control the territory that surrounded the village. The village had to survive while surrounded by other villages that answered to Cortés. These villages not only did not take orders from Antequera, they were hostile to it, most likely encouraged by Cortés.
To counter this, the village petitioned the Crown for elevation to city status, which would grant it certain rights, privileges, and exceptions. It would also ensure that the settlement remained under the king's direct control, rather than Cortés's. This petition was granted in 1532 by Charles V of Spain.
Early Mexico
After the Independence of Mexico in 1821, the city became the seat of a municipality. The city and municipality were renamed Oaxaca, formerly Antequera. In 1872, "de Juárez" was added to the city and municipality names to honor Benito Juárez, a native son who had begun his legal and political career here and who served as president of Mexico from 1858 until his death in 1872.
Modern history
The 2006 Oaxaca protests developed from state actions in 2005. Oaxaca's new state governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz banned political demonstrations in the capital's main square and historic center, or zócalo. He acted to modernize the Zócalo as a tourist attraction, turning the state legislature building into a museum. In summer 2005, Oaxaca's urban middle classes joined in protests against these decisions.
In May 2006, the national teachers' union staged its annual occupation of the Zócalo, a union-negotiation tactic and local tradition held every summer since 1989. After a year of protests and growing resistance to the new governor, in 2006, the summer occupation of the square attracted more teachers than usual.
The government announced wage and employment benefit increases for teachers shortly thereafter. An internal conflict within the local teachers' union led to accusations that the bargaining had not been in the teachers' best interests. On the night of June 14, the state police attacked and tear-gassed the teachers still sleeping in the Zócalo, generating more public outrage against Governor Ruiz and the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party.
Many radical groups merged with the teachers' union to form the Popular Assembly of the People of Oaxaca (APPO). This assembly defended the rights of several neighborhoods and organizations against government repression, in particular the "caravanas de la muerte" – death squads of government agents patrolling the city in police trucks. The assembly also closed government buildings and barricaded access roads to the city. It replaced the city's police force with the Honorable Cuerpo de Topiles, a civilian law force based on indigenous traditions of communal policing.
In October 2006, President Vicente Fox sent more than 10,000 paramilitaries to retake control of the city. Armed confrontations resulted in many deaths, including that of Indymedia journalists Bradley Roland Will, Roberto López Hernández, and Jorge Alberto Beltrán. In late December, teachers' union leaders announced an end to their strike. Several leaders of the APPO were arrested. These grassroots groups continued to clash with local and state government, but finally all the barricades were removed and they turned over control of the city.
Geography
Climate
Oaxaca has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw), due to its high altitude. During the dry season, temperatures during the day remain warm with an average high of 27.1 °C (80.8 °F) in the coolest month, December, and an average high of 33.3 °C (91.9 °F) in April, just before the beginning of the wet season. Although daytime temperatures are warm, nighttime temperatures are cool with an average low of 9 °C (48 °F) in January. Due to its altitude of 1,555 m (5,102 ft), the climate of Oaxaca is cooler than lowland areas at the same latitude. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer months with June being the wettest with an average precipitation of 171 mm (6.7 in).
Economy and tourism
The city is the primary attraction of the state, which also relies economically on tourism. From 1984 to 2009, tourism became the dominant factor in Oaxaca's economy. The attractions are the verdant landscapes of the Oaxaca Valley and the architectural and cultural charms of the city itself. A massive 77% of the municipality of Oaxaca has employment that is related in some way to tourism. The 2006 Oaxaca protests had a severe negative impact on tourism revenue. The following largest economic sectors are mining and manufacturing, which employ 20% of the workforce.
The city centre was included in a World Heritage Site designated by UNESCO, in recognition of its treasure of historic buildings and monuments. Tourist activity peaks in three seasons: Holy Week, summer (especially during Guelaguetza) and New Year. Many of the tourists who come during Holy Week and for the New Year come from other parts of Mexico, including native Oaxacans returning to visit from their places of work. Most international visitors come during the summer.
Landmarks
Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo)
The Plaza de la Constitución, or Zócalo, was planned out in 1529 by Juan Peláez de Berrio. Throughout the colonial period, this plaza was never paved or had sidewalks; it had only a marble fountain installed here in 1739. This was removed in 1857 to make way for the bandstand, and trees were planted. In 1881, the vegetation here was rearranged, and in 1885, a statue of Benito Juárez was added. It was remodeled again in 1901, and a new Art Nouveau bandstand was installed. Fountains of green stone with capricious figures were installed in 1967. The bandstand in the center hosts the State Musical Band, La Marimba and other groups.
Various arcades surround the plaza. On the south side of the plaza are the Portales de Ex-Palacio de Gobierno, which was vacated by the government in 2005 and then reopened as a museum called "Museo del Palacio 'Espacio de Diversidad'" Other arcades include the "Portal de Mercadores" on the eastern side, "Portal de Claverias" on the north side and the "Portal del Señor" on the west side.
The State Government Palace is located on the main square. This site used to be the Portal de la Alhóndiga (warehouse), and in front of the palace is the Benito Juárez Market. The original palace was inaugurated in 1728, on the wedding day of the prince and princess of Spain and Portugal. The architectural style was Gothic. The building on this site was begun in 1832, inaugurated in 1870, and completed in 1887. The inside contains murals depicting Oaxaca's history from the pre-Hispanic era, the colonial era, and the post-Independence period. Most of these were painted by Arturo García Bustos in the 1980s.
The Federal Palace is located across from the cathedral and was the site of the old Archbishop's Palace until 1902. Its architecture is "neo-Mixtec," reflecting the nationalism of the early 20th century and the reverence for the Mixtec-Zapotec culture held in more recent times. The architectural elements copy a number of those from Mitla and Monte Albán.
Northwest of the Zócalo is the Alameda de León, a garden area that is essentially an annex of the main square. In 1576, viceroy Martín Enríquez de Almanza set aside two city blocks on which to build the city government offices, but they were never built here. One of the blocks was sold, and the other became a market. Antonio de León, governor of the state of Oaxaca, lived in front of this market and decided to turn it into a park in the 1840s, making it a small replica of the Alameda Central in Mexico City. In 1885, a statue of León was added.
Andador Macedonio Alcalá
The Macedonio Alcalá Tourist Corridor is a street paved with green cantera. It was closed to traffic in 1985 and is now only open to pedestrian traffic. Along the street are notable places, such as the original building that housed the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez. The Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (Museum of Contemporary Art) or MACO is located here as is the Plazuela (small plaza) Labastida and the Parroquia de la Preciosa Sangre de Cristo (Parish of the Precious Blood of Christ).
Churches and religious buildings
Oaxaca Cathedral, also referred to as Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption, is the third to be built as the first two were destroyed by large earthquakes in the 16th and 18th centuries. Construction of this third church began in 1702, and it was consecrated in 1733. Its facade is made of green cantera stone, a material commonly used in Oaxaca's buildings, and the interior is in Neoclassical style. The altar features a bronze statue of Our Lady of the Assumption (Nuestra Señora de al Asunción) sculpted by Tadoini and cast in Italy during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz.