Nicosia, also known as Lefkosia or Lefkoşa, is the capital of Cyprus. It is the southeasternmost capital city among European Union member states. Its northern part is the de facto capital of Northern Cyprus.
Nicosia has been continuously inhabited for over 5,500 years and has been the capital of Cyprus since the 10th century. It is the last divided capital in Europe. Three years after Cyprus gained independence from British rule in 1960, the Bloody Christmas conflict between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots triggered island-wide intercommunal violence, and in 1964, Nicosia's Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities segregated into the south and the north of the city, respectively. A decade later, in 1974, Turkey invaded Cyprus just days after a Greek junta-backed coup aimed to unite the island with Greece. Following the invasion the island was split between Cyprus in the south and a Turkish-occupied zone in the north, with the dividing line running through Nicosia.
Apart from its legislative and administrative functions, Nicosia has established itself as the island's financial capital and its main international business centre. In 2018, Nicosia was the 32nd richest city in the world in relative purchasing power. In the 2022 Globalisation and World Cities (GaWC) ranking, Nicosia was classified as a Beta− city.
Names
The earliest known external written reference to the settlement that later became Nicosia, appears in an Assyrian inscription from the reign of King Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC), where it is recorded as Lidir on a clay prism dated to c. 672 BC. Lidir appears to have been the local form of the name and was later variously Hellenised as Ledra (Ancient Greek: Λήδρα, Lḗdra), Ledrae (Λέδραι, Lédrai), Ledroi (Λήδροι, Lḗdroi), and Ledron (Λεδρῶν, Ledrō̂n, and Λῆδρον, Lē̂dron).
By late antiquity, early Christian sources recorded the location under several Greek names: Leuteon (Λευτεῶν, Leuteō̂n), Leucon (Λευκῶν, Leukō̂n), Leucotheon (Λευκοθέον, Leukothéon), Leucoi Theoi (Λευκοί Θεοί, Leukoí Theoí), and Leucopolis (Λευκούπολις, Leukoúpolis). These names incorporate elements of the Greek words for "white" (λευκός, leukós) or "poplar" (λεύκη, leúkē) and for "God" (Θεός, Theós), "god" (θεός, theós), or "goddess" (θεᾱ́, theá), possibly alluding to either a supposed son of Ptolemy I Soter or the sea goddess Leucothea. During the Byzantine period, the form Leucosia (Λευκουσία, Leukousía) became common; it is usually interpreted as meaning "the white estate" (ἡ λευκή οὐσία, hē leukḗ ousía). This form later developed into modern Greek Lefkosia (Λευκωσία, Lefkosía, [lefkoˈsi.a]) and Turkish Lefkoşa ([lefˈkoʃa]).
The Latin and English name Nicosia emerged during the medieval Lusignan period, around the same time that the Cypriot port of Limassol replaced its initial N with an L for similarly unclear reasons. Hill cites several earlier examples of interchanging /l/ and /n/ as far back as the Phoenician Cypriots, and suggests that this shift may reflect variation in native pronunciation. The name is also preserved in the Armenian as Nikosia (Նիկոսիա) and in Cypriot Arabic as Nikusiya (نيكوسيا).
The town is also recorded as Callinicesis (Καλλινικησις, Kallinikēsis) or Καλλινεικησις (Kallineikēsis) in certain hagiographies of Saints Tryphillius and Spyridon (fl. 4th century).
History
Prehistoric Nicosia
Nicosia has been continuously inhabited since approximately 2500 BC, near the onset of the Bronze Age, when the first settlers established themselves in the fertile Mesaoria plain.
The city-state of Ledra is likewise associated with the area of Nicosia, most Mycenaean-era ruins are found on the broad hill of Ayia Paraskevi, also known as Leondari Vounò located 6 km (3.7 mi) southeast of central Nicosia. Ledra is said to have been one of the twelve kingdoms of ancient Cyprus established by the Achaeans after the end of the Trojan War. The kingdom was soon destroyed. A Cypriot vassal polity, transcribed as Lidir in a 672 BC Assyrian text, is generally identified with the remains found closer to the site of the modern city. Its ruler Onasagoras (Unasagusu in Assyria form) is recorded as having paid tribute to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon.
Ancient Nicosia
By 330 BC, Ledra is recorded as a small town of little significance. The settlement was thought to be economically and politically dependent on the nearby town of Chytri. Farming was the principal occupation of its inhabitants. During this period, Ledra did not experience the substantial growth that was seen in the other Cypriot coastal towns, which was largely driven by trade. Some sources state that it was restored and improved around 280 BC by Leucos, son of Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt, although Hill dismissed this claim as an early modern "fancy" based solely on pseudo-etymological speculation.
By the 4th century, the town had become the seat of a bishopric known as Ledron, Leuteon, or Leucotheon. Its bishop Saint Triphyllius was a student of Saint Spyridon. Archaeological evidence indicates that the town regained much of its earlier significance in the early Christian period, and that the presence of two or three basilicas with opus sectile decoration, along with marbles decorated in high relief, indicates the presence of a relatively prosperous and sophisticated Christian society.
Medieval Nicosia
Following the destruction of Cyprus's capital, Salamis, during Arab raids in 647, and the extensive damage inflicted on other coastal settlements, the island's economy became more internalised, and inland towns gained in relative significance. Nicosia benefited from this shift, functioning as an outlet for agricultural products from its hinterland, the Mesaoria plain. It was further advantaged by its ample water supply. Consequently, the town developed sufficiently for the Byzantine Empire to select Nicosia as the capital of the island around 965, when the Byzantine navy restored full imperial control over the island and organised it as a theme. The Byzantines moved the island's administrative seat to Nicosia primarily for security reasons, as coastal towns were frequently targeted by raids. From that point on, it remained the capital of Cyprus and served as the seat of the Byzantine governor. The last governor was Isaac Komnenos, who declared himself emperor on the island and ruled from 1183 to 1191. Testimony as late as 1211 indicates that Nicosia was not yet a walled a city, indicating that the Byzantines did not construct substantial fortifications, likely considering that the city's inland location would be sufficient for defence purposes. The Byzantines did, however, build a relatively weak fort within the city. Under Byzantine rule, the economy relied largely on trade in agricultural goods, but the town also produced luxury items and metal ware due to the presence of the imperial administration.
On his way to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade in 1189, Richard I of England's fleet was plagued by storms, forcing him to stop first at Crete and then at Rhodes. Three ships continued onward, including one carrying Joan of England, Queen of Sicily and Berengaria of Navarre, Richard's bride-to-be. Two of the ships were wrecked off the coast of Cyprus, but Joan and Berengaria's vessel reached Limassol safely. Joan refused to come ashore, fearing she would be captured and held hostage by Isaac Komnenos, the ruler of Cyprus and an enemy of the Franks. Fearing a hostile reception, the survivors remained at anchor off the coast for a full week until Richard's arrival on 8 May. Outraged by the perceived hostility towards his sister and his future bride, Richard invaded. Richard besieged Nicosia, defeated Komnenos at Tremetousia and took control of the island, before selling it a short while later to the Knights Templar.
Frankish rule of Cyprus lasted from 1192 until 1489. During this period, Nicosia served as the capital of the medieval Kingdom of Cyprus, and as the seat of the Lusignan kings, the Latin Church and the island's Frankish administration. The walls of the city were constructed during this era, along with numerous palaces and public buildings, including the gothic Cathedral of Saint Sophia. The tombs of the Lusignan kings are also located here.
In 1373/1374, Nicosia was occupied and ravaged by the Republic of Genoa and again in 1426 by the Mamluk Sultanate.
In 1489, when Cyprus came under the rule of the Republic of Venice, Nicosia became the island's administrative centre and the seat of the republic. The Venetian governors considered it necessary for all the cities of Cyprus to be fortified because of the growing Ottoman threat. In 1567 the Venetians constructed new fortifications around Nicosia—which are well-preserved to this day—demolishing the old walls built by the Franks, as well as other important buildings of the Frankish era including the King's Palace, other private palaces and churches and monasteries of both Orthodox and Latin Christians. The new walls took the shape of a star with eleven bastions. The design was better suited to artillery warfare and allowed defenders greater control over the city's defences. The walls have three gates: Kyrenia Gate to the north, Paphos Gate to the west, and Famagusta Gate to the east. The Pedieos River once flowed through the Venetian walled city. In 1567, it was diverted outside the newly built moat for strategic reasons, in anticipation of the expected Ottoman attack.
Ottoman rule
On 1 July 1570, the city came under Ottoman rule. On 22 July, having captured Paphos, Limassol and Larnaca, Piali Pasha marched his army towards Nicosia and laid siege to the city. The city withstood the siege for 40 days before falling on 9 September 1570. The story of the Cypriot martyr Arnaude de Rocas dates back to the fall of Nicosia. Approximately 20,000 residents died during the siege, and nearly every church, public building, and palace was looted. Nicosia had an estimated population of 21,000 before the Ottoman conquest, but Ottoman census data from 1572, indicate the population had fallen to between 1,100 and 1,200. The devastation was so extensive that for several years after the conquest, some villages on the island had larger populations than Nicosia. The principal Latin churches were converted into mosques, including the Cathedral of Saint Sophia.
Nicosia served as the seat of the pasha, the Greek archbishop, the dragoman, and the qadi. The Venetian-era Palazzo del Governo became the residence of the pasha, the governor of Cyprus, and the building was renamed to the konak or seraglio (saray). The square outside became known as Seraglio Square or Sarayönü (literally "front of the Saray"), a name it retains today. The saray was demolished in 1904 and the current block of government offices were built on the site.
The newly settled Turkish population generally occupied the north of the old riverbed. Greek Cypriots remained concentrated in the south, where the Archbishopric of the Orthodox Church was located. Other ethnic minorities, such as the Armenians and Latins came to be settled near the city's western entrance at Paphos Gate.
The names of the 12 quarters into which Nicosia was originally divided after the Ottoman Conquest are said to derive from the 12 generals who commanded divisions of the Ottoman army at the time. Each general was posted to a quarter, which - with two exceptions - was known by his name:
- General Ibrahim Pasha.
- General Mahmoud Pasha.
- General Ak Kavuk Pasha (a nickname meaning "white cap").
- General Koukoud Effendi.
- General Arab Ahmed Pasha.
- General Abdi Pasha, known as Chavush ("Sergeant") from which rank he was probably promoted.
- General Haydar Pasha.
- General Karamanzade (son of a Caramanian; other names not recorded).
- General Yahya Pasha (now known as the Phaneromeni Quarter).
- General Daniel Pasha (the quarter was later renamed Omerie in honour of Caliph Omar, who is said to have stayed there for one night while in Cyprus).
- Tophane (Artillery Barracks)
- Nebetkhane, meaning police station or quarters of the patrol.
The names of the generals in command of the last two quarters are unknown:
The number of neighbourhoods was later increased to 24. Each neighbourhood was organised around a mosque or church, inhabited primarily by corresponding Muslim and Christian communities.
British rule
Nicosia came under British rule on 5 July 1878, following of the Cyprus Convention, under which Britain agreed to support the Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin.
The old Ottoman administrative headquarters (the saray) was replaced in 1904 by a new building housing the law courts, land registry, and offices of the forestry, customs, and Nicosia commissioners. Adjacent was the Nicosia Police Headquarters, while opposite were the General Post Office and the telegraph office. A Venetian column, previously in a fenced courtyard near the saray, was relocated and restored in the summer of 1915 in the middle of Saray Square. The Nicosia column is believed to have been erected in honour of the reigning Doge Francesco Donato around 1550.