Isfahan (Persian: اصفهان [esfæˈhɒːn] ⓘ) is a city in the Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan Province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located 440 kilometres (270 miles) south of Tehran. The city has a population of approximately 2,238,000, making it the third-most populous city in Iran, after Tehran and Mashhad, and the second-largest metropolitan area.
Isfahan is located at the intersection of the two principal routes that traverse Iran, north–south and east–west. Isfahan flourished between the 9th and 18th centuries. Under the Safavid Empire, Isfahan became the capital of Iran, for the second time in its history, under Abbas the Great. It is known for its Persian–Muslim architecture, grand boulevards, covered bridges, palaces, tiled mosques, and minarets.
Isfahan has many historical buildings, monuments, paintings, and artifacts. The fame of Isfahan led to the Persian proverb Esfahān nesf-e-jahān ast ('Isfahan is half the world'). Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan is one of the largest city squares in the world, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Etymology
The name Ispahan is derived from Middle Persian Spahān, which is attested by various Middle Persian seals and inscriptions, including that of the Zoroastrian magus Kartir.
The region is denoted by the abbreviation GD (Southern Media) on Sasanian coins. In Ptolemy's Geographia, it appears as Aspadana (Ἀσπαδανα) or Aspazana (Ασπαζάνα), which translates to "place of gathering for the army". It is believed that Spahān is derived from spādānām 'the armies', the Old Persian plural of spāda, from which is derived spāh (𐭮𐭯𐭠𐭧) 'army' and spahi (سپاهی, 'soldier', literally 'of the army') in Middle Persian. Some of the other ancient names include Gey, Jey (old form Zi), Partakān(Paraetacene),Park, and Judea.
History
Human habitation in the Isfahan region can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period. Archaeologists have found artifacts dating back to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages. During Median rule, Isfahan became a regional centre, especially due to the benefits of the Zayandehrud River. It was a religiously and ethnically diverse city during the reign of Cyrus the Great, and exhibited religious tolerance.
The Muslim Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE. They made it the capital of al-Jibal province. The city further grew under the Buyid and Seljuk dynasties. After the fall of the Seljuks in 1200 CE, the city temporarily declined. It regained its importance during the Safavid era (1501–1736), with the city experiencing a golden age under the rule of Abbas the Great, who moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. During his reign, Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Later, the city also had enclaves for people of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghestani descent.
In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran, especially during the population migrations at the start of the century and in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War.
Under Median rule, the commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, growing into a regional centre that benefited from the fertile soil on the banks of the Zayandehrud River, in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana.
When Cyrus the Great unified Persian and Median lands into the Achaemenid Empire, the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled religious tolerance. Having just taken Babylon, Cyrus made an edict in 538 BCE declaring that Jews in Babylon could return to Jerusalem. Later, some of the Jewish immigrants settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih wrote:
When the Jews emigrated from Jerusalem, fleeing from Nebuchadnezzar, they carried with them a sample of the water and soil of Jerusalem. They did not settle until they reached the city of Isfahan, whose soil and water was deemed to resemble that of Jerusalem. Thereupon they settled there, cultivated the soil, raised children and grandchildren, and today the name of this settlement is Yahudia.
Parthian era
The Parthians (247 BCE – 224 CE) continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the Achaemenids, fostering both a Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organization introduced by Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians, Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city.
Sassanid era
The Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE) presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reforms and reviving Iranian culture and the Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who descended from seven noble Iranian families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban-planning projects.
While Isfahan's political importance declined during this period, many Sassanid princes studied statecraft in the city, and its military role increased. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to Susa and Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, which would be ready to march against Constantinople at any moment. The names Aspahan and Spahan are derived from the Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'.
Although many theories have mentioned the origins of Isfahan, little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty. Historical records suggest that, in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen Shushandukht – the Jewish wife of emperor Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420) and mother of his successor Bahram V – settled a colony of Jewish immigrants in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya and Jouybareh).
The settlement was 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Isfahan, then known by the Achaemid and Parthian name Gabae.
Gabai was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to Gay (Arabic Jay). It was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River. The colony's establishment has also been attributed to Nebuchadrezzar, though that is unlikely.
After the Arab conquest of Iran, the gradual population decrease of Gay, and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs, resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The names Aspadana, Ispadana, Spahan, and Sepahan, from which the modern name Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located.
Isfahan and Gay were reportedly both circular in design, a characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities. However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan has not yet been uncovered.
Muslim conquest
When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE, they made it the capital of al-Jabal province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian Buyid dynasty, which came to rule much of Iran when the temporal authority of the Abbasid leaders waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the tenth century. The Turkish conqueror and founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; the city grew in size and splendour under his grandson Malik-Shah I (r. 1073–92).
After the fall of the Seljuks (c. 1200), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities, such as Tabriz and Qazvin.
Timurid era
During his visit in 1327, Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part."
In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the warlord Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents; his soldiers reportedly killing 70,000 citizens. An eyewitness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads.
Safavid era
Isfahan regained its importance during the Safavid era (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler Abbas the Great (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest cities of the 17th-century. In 1598, he moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central Isfahan. He introduced policies increasing Iranian involvement in the Silk Road trade. Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Their contributions to the economic vitality of the city supported the recovery of Safavid prestige after earlier losses to the Ottomans and Qizilbash tribes.
During Abbas's reign, as many as 300,000 Armenians (primarily from Jugha) were forcefully resettled; some were brought to Isfahan. He ordered the establishment of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named New Julfa. Today, it is one of the largest Armenian quarters in the world.
Abbas also oversaw a transformation of the urban pattern of Isfahan. The plans included the new, rectangular Shah Square and the linear Chahar Bagh Boulevard. Between these two focal points of Isfahan's urban revitalization was a large garden, today the gardens of Hasht Behesht. The new, geometric, planned portions of Isfahan stood out from the old city's complex street layouts, attracting foreign emissaries and wealthy residents along the Chahar Bagh. Shah Square would be adorned by 4 grand monuments on each side. To the north, a turquoise gate connected the new square to Isfahan's Grand Bazaar and old square; to the south, the Shah Mosque became the new primary place of worship for city residents.
The royal court in Isfahan had a great number of Georgian ḡolāms (military servants), as well as Georgian women. Although they spoke both Persian and Turkic, their mother tongue was Georgian. Now the city had enclaves of those of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent. Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Iran in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000.
During Abbas's reign, Isfahan became known in Europe, and European travellers, such as Jean Chardin, gave accounts of their visits to the city. The city was sacked by Central Asian invaders in 1722, during a marked decline in Safavid influence. Thereafter, Isfahan experienced a decline in importance, culminating in the capital being moved to Mashhad during the Afsharid era. Subsequently, the capital moved to Shiraz during the Zand era, and finally to Tehran in 1775, by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the founder of the Qajar dynasty.
In the early years of the 19th century, efforts were made to preserve some of Isfahan's archeologically important buildings. The work was started by Mohammad Hossein Khan, during the reign of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar.
Modern age
In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran. Many came during the migrations at the start of the century, and in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War. During the war, 23,000 people from Isfahan were killed, and there were 43,000 veterans.
In 1921, the first telephone office was created on Shams Abadi street.
During World War II, Polish refugees, mostly children, were admitted in Isfahan. There were 21 Polish childcare units, located in different parts of the city. Some 2,600 Poles were housed there as of February 1943. Over time, Polish children were evacuated further to Africa, India and New Zealand.
The city has had four master development programs. The first was created in 1971 by a German engineering firm that designed checkered streets.
Today, Isfahan produces carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods, including sweets. Isfahan is noted for its production of the Isfahan rug, a type of Persian rug typically made of merino wool and silk.
There are nuclear experimental reactors as well as uranium conversion facilities (UCF) for producing nuclear fuel in the environs of the city. There is a major oil refinery and a large air force base outside the city. HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city. Isfahan was also attracting international investment as of 2014. Isfahan hosted the International Physics Olympiad in 2007.
In 2023, 200 loudspeakers were installed in the city by the government to play the azān. The municipality created a tourism app called Isfahanema. As of 2023, several public housing projects were being built.