Copenhagen (Danish: København [kʰøpm̩ˈhɑwˀn] ⓘ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1.4 million. The city is situated mainly on the island of Zealand (Sjælland), with a smaller part on the island of Amager. Copenhagen is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the Øresund strait. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road.
Settled as a Viking fishing village in the 10th century in the vicinity of what is now Gammel Strand, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. During the 16th century, the city served as the de facto capital of the Kalmar Union and the seat of the Union's monarchy, which governed most of the modern-day Nordic region as part of a Danish confederation with Sweden and Norway. The city flourished as the cultural and economic centre of Scandinavia during the Renaissance. By the 17th century, it had become a regional centre of power, serving as the heart of the Danish government and military. During the 18th century, Copenhagen suffered a devastating plague outbreak and urban conflagrations. Major redevelopment included the construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and the establishment of cultural institutions such as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. The city became the centre of the Danish slave trade during this period. In 1807, the city was bombarded by a British fleet during the Napoleonic Wars, before the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. After World War II, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes emanating from the city centre.
Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic, and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Copenhagen's economy has developed rapidly in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals, and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region. With several bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterised by parks, promenades, and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks, such as Tivoli Gardens, The Little Mermaid statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle, Frederik's Church, Børsen, and many museums, restaurants, and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions.
Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen Business School, and the IT University of Copenhagen. The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the football clubs F.C. Copenhagen and Brøndby IF. The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. Movia is a public mass transit company serving all of eastern Denmark except Bornholm. The Copenhagen Metro, launched in 2002, serves central Copenhagen. Additionally, the Copenhagen S-train, the Lokaltog (private railway), and the Coast Line network serve and connect central Copenhagen to outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2.7 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries.
Etymology
Copenhagen's name (København in Danish), reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation in Old Norse, from which Danish descends, was Kaupmannahǫfn [ˈkɔupˌmɑnːɑˌhɔvn] meaning 'merchants' harbour': the direct corresponding English cognates of this name would be "chapmen's haven", the city's English toponym however was acquired through Low German Kopenhagen. Copenhagen's Swedish name is Köpenhamn, a direct translation of the mutually intelligible Danish name.
By the time Old Danish was spoken, the capital was called Køpmannæhafn, with the current name deriving from centuries of subsequent regular sound change by monophthongization of /au/ to /o/ as seen in Asbjörn-Osborn, Austrie etc., and this change in pronunciation happened some time around 1400.
The city's Latin name Hafnia, from the final havn or "haven", is the namesake of the element hafnium.
History
Early history
Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age. Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard.
Multiple finds indicate that Copenhagen originated was a city by the 11th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally 'old shore') in the 11th century or even earlier. The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted seasonal fishermen and merchants from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. Recent archaeological finds during work on the city's rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant mansion from c. 1020 near Kongens Nytorv. The remains of a church with graves from the 11th century were unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen. Excavations in Pilestræde uncovered a well from the late 12th century.
The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as Portus Mercatorum, meaning "Merchants' Harbour" or, in the Danish of the time, Købmannahavn. Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. This was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed, and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Wends continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle.
Middle Ages
In 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that King Valdemar I gave the castle of Hafn (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde (1158–1191) and Archbishop of Lund (1177–1201). Upon Absalon's death, the property came into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde. Around 1200, the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town, which began to develop around it.
As the town became more prominent, it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League. In 1368, it was successfully invaded during the Second Danish-Hanseatic War. As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen, particularly in the herring trade, the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen. In 1254, it received a city charter under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published.
With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV. This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe. Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s.
16th and 17th centuries
Before the Reformation of 1536, the city was faithful to Christian II, who was Catholic. It was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I, who supported Lutheranism. Later, towers were built along the city wall. The city supported Christian II's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck but a siege from July 1535 to July 1536 forced it to capitulate to Christian III. During the second half of the century, the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping. Christoffer Valkendorff, a high-ranking statesman, defended the city's interests and contributed to its development. The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant, as were northern German states.
During the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648, Copenhagen experienced dramatic growth. On his initiative, in the early 17th century, two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen: the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen, the stock exchange. To foster international trade, the East India Company was founded in 1616. East of the city, the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts inspired by Dutch planning. Intended as a fortified trading centre, it ultimately became part of Copenhagen. Christian IV sponsored many other ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn. In 1658–1659, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and a major assault.
By 1661, Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway. All major institutions were located there, as was the fleet and most of the army. Its defences were enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692, leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm.
18th century
Copenhagen lost some 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires that destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and burned until the morning of 23 October, destroying 28% of the city as a whole, 47% of the medieval part, and leaving about 20% of the population homeless. Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason why few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city.
Much rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace, completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was started. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken, while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts.
The Danish slave trade began in the 17th century and rapidly expanded in the 18th century. Between 1660 and 1806, Danish merchants, many of them based in Copenhagen, transported some 120,000 enslaved Africans to the Danish West Indies. These merchants were mostly affiliated with the slave-trading Danish West India Company and Danish Asiatic Company, both of which were headquartered in Copenhagen. Many buildings in Copenhagen, such as the Moltke Mansion, Yellow Palace and the Vestindisk Pakhus were funded with profits from the slave trade. In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefited from Denmark's neutrality in the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After the fire of 1794 destroyed Christiansborg and a 1795 fire seriously damaged the city, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged.
19th century
To prevent Denmark from allying with France, the British sent Admiral Sir Hyde Parker to attack the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy. On 2 April 1801, Parker's fleet encountered the Dano-Norwegian navy anchored near Copenhagen. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack. The Dano-Norwegian fleet put up heavy resistance, and the battle is often considered Nelson's hardest-fought, surpassing even the battle at Trafalgar. It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have "put the telescope to the blind eye" in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire. The British ultimately won the battle, sinking or capturing most of the Dano-Norwegian fleet, which led Denmark to agree not to ally with France.
In 1807, due to continued fears that Denmark would ally with France, Britain sent another fleet, led Admiral James Gambier, to Copenhagen to seize or destroy the Dano-Norwegian navy. The British published a demand to the Dano-Norwegian fleet to surrender. The Danish responded with "what amounted to a declaration of war". Then Gambier's fleet bombarded Copenhagen from 2 to 5 September. The bombardment, which saw the deployment of Congreve rockets, killed 195 civilians and wounded 768, along with burning approximately 1,000 structures, including the Church of Our Lady. The British artillery had a longer-range than Copenhagen's old defence-line range. A British landing force of 30,000 men entered and occupied Copenhagen. The British suffered almost 200 casualties, while the Danish suffered 3,000. Virtually the whole Dano-Norwegian fleet surrendered and the British either burnt them or brought them back to Britain. Denmark declared war on Britain, leading to the Gunboat War, which lasted until the 1814 Treaty of Kiel.
Despite the turmoil the Napoleonic Wars brought to the city, Copenhagen soon experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts were opened to build housing around The Lakes (Danish: Søerne) west of the old defences. The ramparts were out of date as a defence system, and had limited the city's area, causing poor sanitation. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The housing outside the old ramparts saw a huge population growth, from 120,000 in 1840 to 400,000 by 1901.
20th century
By the beginning of the 20th century, Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city. With its new city hall and railway station, its centre was drawn towards the west. New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02.
As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war.
In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolition of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade to build five large blocks of flats.