James Cook's third and final voyage (12 July 1776 – 4 October 1780) was a British attempt to discover the Northwest Passage between the Atlantic ocean and the Pacific coast of North America. The attempt failed and Cook was killed at Hawaii in a violent dispute with the local inhabitants. The ostensible purpose of the voyage was to return Omai, a young man from Raiatea, to his homeland, but the British Admiralty used this as a cover for their plan to send Cook on a voyage to find the Northwest Passage, should it exist. HMS Resolution, to be commanded by Cook, and HMS Discovery, commanded by Charles Clerke, were prepared for the voyage which started from Plymouth in 1776.
After Omai was returned to his homeland, the ships sailed into the central Pacific where they encountered the hitherto unknown (to Europeans) Hawaiian Archipelago, before reaching the Pacific coast of North America. After exploring and charting the northwest coast of the continent, they passed through the Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean where they were eventually blocked by pack ice. The vessels returned to the Pacific and called briefly at the Aleutians before Cook decided to return to the Hawaiian Islands for the winter. At Kealakekua Bay, off the island of Hawaii, a number of quarrels broke out between the British and Hawaiians culminating in Cook's death in a violent exchange on 14 February 1779. The command of the expedition was assumed by Charles Clerke who again failed to find the Northwest Passage before his own death from tuberculosis. Under the command of John Gore the crews returned to London in October 1780.
Conception
Upon his return from the second voyage, James Cook received considerable recognition in Britain. He was promoted to the rank of post-captain and subsequently appointed Fourth captain of Greenwich Hospital with a pension of £230 per year. Cook soon found himself unsatisfied with a quiet life. He missed the intellectual challenges of exploration. He felt confined by his new circumstances, as shown in his own words about moving from the vastness of the Southern Hemisphere to the restricted space of his home. Although he admitted the post offered comfort and a good income, he was uncertain whether he could adapt to a life of ease and retirement.
By this time, Cook was nearly forty-seven years old. He suffered from a short temper, ongoing digestive issues, and possibly a diseased gall-bladder. Years at sea had left him physically and emotionally tired. The search for the Northwest Passage promised new opportunity. This sea route, if it existed, was believed to provide access to the trading nations of Asia. The belief in such a passage was built on scientific misunderstandings, including the notion that sea water could not freeze. Many scholars thought that ice at sea must come from rivers on land, so without nearby landmasses, the seas would be open and navigable. Cook’s own observations in Antarctica had challenged these ideas, but his findings were not yet widely published or accepted. Attempts to find the Northwest Passage had a long history.
The first British effort came in 1497 with John Cabot. Over the next 250 years, explorers made about fifty attempts using routes such as the St. Lawrence, Hudson Bay, and Davis Strait. None succeeded, and many ships did not return. When Cook returned in 1775, preparations for another attempt were already underway. Lawmakers and Admiralty officials moved to renew a 1745 Act offering a large prize of £20,000 for the discovery of the Passage. Another reason for the voyage was the Admiralty's intention to send Omai, a young Polynesian from Raiatea who had been brought to England in 1774 by Tobias Furneaux, back home.
Preparation and personnel
Initially the Admiralty had wanted Charles Clerke to lead the expedition, with Cook, acting as a consultant. During a dinner on 9 January with the First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Sandwich, Cook stated while discussing the selection of officers that he would lead the voyage himself.
The Resolution under Cook sailed with a crew of 112, while the Discovery commanded by Clerke carried 70. Both ships drew from a group of officers with experience in exploration. The lieutenants from the previous voyage had been promoted to commanders. Clerke was notably the only officer to join all three expeditions under Cook. At 33, Clerke had matured since the first voyage. He gained technical skills, became a reliable officer, and was known for his sense of duty, though he lacked training as a surveyor. He was sociable, generous, and had strong relationships with colleagues, but suffered personal financial difficulties, which once left him imprisoned for debt.
John Gore, an experienced circumnavigator and the oldest officer after Cook, became first lieutenant of the Resolution. He had previously missed out on promotion due to absence on another venture. Gore was practical, dependable, sometimes speculative, and often reserved in his journal-keeping, but showed occasional creativity in naming places. James King joined as second lieutenant of the Resolution. He was in his mid-twenties, with both naval and political connections. King had a strong academic background, including scientific studies in Paris and Oxford, which made him well-suited for his responsibilities with navigational instruments. King’s character and intellect earned him respect among officers and crew, and he was sometimes mistaken for Cook’s son in Hawaii due to their close working relationship.
John Williamson became third lieutenant of the Resolution. He was generally disliked by his peers. His temperament was marked by self-righteousness and a tendency to anger, which did not fit well with the demands of the voyage. William Bligh, at age 21, became master of the Resolution after six years of naval service. He was recognised for his skill as a surveyor and draughtsman. Bligh helped train younger crew members and was considered competent, though his later career revealed a tendency for strong judgements and difficulty in forming friendships. The Resolution’s master’s mates included Henry Roberts, noted for his talent in journal illustration; William Harvey, who had served on both the Resolution and the Endeavour; and William Lanyon, who had served on the Adventure.
James Burney was first lieutenant of the Discovery. He came from a well-connected family and had prior experience on the American station. Burney’s partnership with Clerke proved effective, and his observational skills were an asset. John Rickman was second lieutenant of the Discovery. Little is known about him apart from his later involvement in tragic events and his anonymous account of the voyage. Thomas Edgar, the Discovery’s master, was diligent in keeping journals and charts. He demonstrated capable seamanship and conscientiousness. His mates included Nathaniel Portlock, who would later help develop the north-west American fur trade, and Alexander Home, who pursued a Scottish title after retiring.
Among the midshipmen, several would later distinguish themselves. James Trevenen of the Resolution, Edward Riou, and George Vancouver of the Discovery all went on to notable careers. Trevenen wrote vivid accounts of the voyage. Riou died as a captain under Nelson at Copenhagen. Vancouver later became a prominent marine surveyor and wrote extensively about his experiences under Cook. Molesworth Phillips was the only marine officer, serving with the Resolution. He was young and had switched from the navy to the marines on Joseph Banks’s advice. Phillips formed a friendship with James Burney during the voyage. The expedition included six medical officers and assistants. William Anderson, promoted to surgeon of the Resolution, was noted for his medical and natural history knowledge as well as his linguistic skills. He provided scientific support and was esteemed by Cook. David Samwell, Anderson’s first mate, was a competent surgeon with literary and social interests. He documented lighter aspects of the voyage and was an admirer of Cook. William Ellis, the surgeon’s second mate in the Discovery, was educated at Cambridge and contributed to the ship’s scientific work.
Along with the official crew there were also several supernumeraries on the voyage. Omai resided on the Resolution as a passenger. He felt sadness upon leaving England but excitement regarding his homecoming. His personal cargo included port wine and gunpowder. He also carried muskets, bullets, a suit of armour, and a hand-organ. Cook disapproved of giving Omai firearms. Cook believed Omai would eventually miss England once he arrived home. The captain intended to leave before Omai could change his mind. John Webber also sailed on the Resolution as the official artist.
He was 24 years old and the son of a Swiss sculptor. Webber received his training in Berne and Paris. Daniel Solander noticed his work at the Royal Academy. The Admiralty hired him based on this recommendation. Webber produced a high volume of drawings during the trip. He focused on botanical accuracy and landscape mass. His figure drawing surpassed that of previous expedition artists.The Discovery carried William Bayly as the astronomer for the Board of Longitude. David Nelson joined the crew as a botanical collector. He was a gardener from Kew Gardens. Joseph Banks sent Nelson to gather plants. William Anderson and James King performed scientific observations alongside Bayly and Nelson. William Ellis contributed to the mission by painting birds. These men formed the scientific staff for the exploration.
Both ships were supplied with the maximum amount of necessities that space allowed, and every effort was made to secure the best quality supplies available. Items found useful in previous expeditions for maintaining sailor health were provided in abundance. The ships moved to Long Reach at the end of May. There, they received artillery, powder, shot, and other ordnance supplies. In response to royal instructions, the expedition included livestock for the benefit of Pacific islanders. Onboard were a bull, two cows with calves, sheep, and their feed. More animals would be added at the Cape of Good Hope. The ships also carried various European garden seeds intended to enhance local agriculture on the islands they visited.
The Admiralty provided additional items aimed at improving local conditions in the Pacific. Both ships carried iron tools and trinkets to facilitate trade and build relationships with people encountered during the journey. Supplies for the crew included extra clothing suitable for cold climates, as well as any other items thought necessary for health and comfort. The naval department took further steps to ensure the voyage would have scientific value. Astronomical and navigational instruments were supplied by the Board of Longitude, with Cook and Second Lieutenant King responsible for observations to advance navigation and astronomy. The Resolution carried a time-keeper, a copy of Mr. Harrison’s watch made by Mr. Kendall, which had performed well on a previous voyage. The Discovery received a similar time-keeper and instruments, managed by William Bailey, who had previously shown competence in such work.
Scientific staff included Mr. Anderson, the surgeon, who brought expertise in both medicine and natural history. His previous experience in the region made him a valuable contributor to the documentation of the expedition. Several junior officers were assigned to assist with chart-making, drawing coastal views, and planning harbours, activities considered essential for the usefulness of the voyage to future navigators.
To provide detailed visual records, Mr. Webber was chosen as the expedition artist. His drawings were intended to supplement written descriptions and offer a visual account of the places and events encountered.
Once preparations were complete, Cook received orders to proceed to Plymouth and to take the Discovery under his command. Captain Clerke was instructed to join the Resolution at Plymouth, ready for the journey ahead.
Voyage
From England to New Zealand
Cook left the Nore on 25 June and sailed to Plymouth. There, marines came on board, and the Discovery’s crew joined as well. Upon arrival, Cook received his formal orders and the crew was paid early so they could purchase items needed for the journey. On 8 July, Cook ordered Clerke to proceed to Plymouth as soon as he reported for duty. At this time, Clerke was unable to comply because he was imprisoned due to debts incurred by his brother, for which Clerke had stood as guarantor. Despite intervention by naval and political figures, Clerke was not released until the end of July, after which he quickly travelled to Plymouth.
Cook decided to stop at Tenerife instead of Madeira to obtain better feed for the livestock. The water and fresh provisions at Tenerife were acceptable, but the wine was not satisfactory. While there, Cook interacted with French and Spanish naval officers involved in scientific work and navigation. After three days, Cook departed Tenerife on 4 August and passed east of the Cape Verde islands, narrowly avoiding danger near Boa Vista due to a navigation error. The passage took a route south of the equator, then west toward Brazil, and finally east to the Cape, arriving twelve days sooner than on his previous voyage. The journey was mostly uneventful, with time spent addressing leaks and making routine navigational observations.