The Swedish invasion of Russia, also known as the Russian campaign, or Poltava campaign of Charles XII of Sweden, was undertaken from January 1708 to July 1709 during the Great Northern War. The campaign began with Charles's crossing of the Vistula on 1 January 1708, and effectively ended with the Swedish defeat in the Battle of Poltava on 8 July 1709, after which the Swedish surrender at Perevolochna occurred on 11 July 1709. Though Charles continued to pose a military threat to Russia for several years while under the protection of the Ottoman Empire, the 18-month campaign was a turning point in the overall war.
Historical context
In the years preceding the invasion of Russia, Charles had inflicted significant defeats on the Danish and Polish forces, and enthroned the king Stanisław Leszczyński in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth controlled by the pro-Swedish Warsaw Confederation. Having consolidated his victories there, he invaded Saxony, forcing it out of the war in 1706. While the war of succession was raging across the Commonwealth between the pro-Swedish Warsaw Confederation and the anti-Swedish Sandomierz Confederation, Russia exploited the opportunity to invade and occupy most of Belarus from December 1704 to March 1705.
Charles then turned his attention to Russia, and Russian-occupied Belarus. He was a skilled military leader, and probably considered the invasion to be a risky enterprise; he had resisted the advice of his generals to invade during the winter following the first Battle of Narva (1700). His plan appears to have been to march from Warsaw on the Vistula in central Poland to Grodno, Minsk and Orsha in modern Belarus, proceeding via Smolensk to eventually capture the tsar's capital city of Moscow.
Charles had 40,000 soldiers, approximately half of them cavalry. This tactic was characteristic of his military style, which relied on moving armies with great speed over unexpected terrain.
Campaign
March through Belarus (February–October 1708)
The Battle of Grodno (Hrodna) on 7 February 1708 was a relatively small first clash, followed by the larger Battle of Holowczyn (Haloůchyn) on 14 July 1708, a costly tactical Swedish victory. The Battle of Malatitze (10 September 1708) was indecisive, but the Swedes forced the Russians to retreat. The Battle of Rajovka (20 September 1708) was a clear Swedish victory, but after the army reached Tatarsk (modern Monastyrshchinsky District) the following day, the supply convoy of Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt had still not arrived by 25 September 1708. Charles decided it would be impossible to reach Moscow without it, and that his hungry army had to get food in fertile Ukraine instead. Some two weeks later, the supply convoy commanded by Lewenhaupt was defeated in the Battle of Lesnaya (9 October 1708, O.S. 29 September 1708).
Mazepa's Cossacks join Sweden
Meanwhile, the Hetman of the Cossack Hetmanate Ivan Mazepa had been in correspondence with the Polish allies of Charles XII to explore his options. He had been loyal to his protector Peter I for over two decades, but Moscow had been encroaching on the administrative and cultural autonomy of Ukraine. Moreover, Peter's Russian armies were retreating from all of Belarus, unable to withstand the Swedish advance, except to delay it by scorched earth tactics, wreaking destruction across the land and misery for the population. Finally, when it became clear that the army of Charles was making a detour towards Ukraine, and the tsar had refused to send the Ukrainians any help, and ordered them to burn all towns and villages in Charles' path as well, just as the Russians had done in Belarus, Mazepa refused, and changed sides at the urging of his own colonels. They considered the tsar to have violated his duty to protect the Cossack Hetmanate, as stipulated by the Pereiaslav Agreement of 1654 and many treaties ever since; instead, Mazepa and his colonels began studying the Treaty of Hadiach again, and made diplomatic overtures to Charles as he was advancing towards Ukraine.
Sack of Baturyn and the War of Manifestos
In early November 1708, Mazepa and a group of trusted courtiers with a small detachment of Cossacks departed from the Ukrainian capital city of Baturyn in order to meet up with the advancing army of Charles XII. He did not publish any agitation pamphlets against Peter yet for operational security and personal security, hoping that the tsar would take some time to find out about his moves. Yet, Peter found out much sooner than expected, and sent general Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov with a large Russian to capture Baturyn quickly. The Muscovites took the Ukrainian capital by surprise, and committed the Sack of Baturyn on 2 November 1708: not only were the military supplies and provisions that Mazepa had prepared for his own army and the Swedes captured, but the entire city was destroyed and razed to the ground, its population massacred (over 10,000 defenders and civilians, including women and children were killed). The conflict between Hetman Mazepa and Tsar Peter, known as the War of Manifestos (autumn 1708 – spring 1709), had begun: the tsar accused the hetman of treason, and the hetman accused the tsar of violating all the treaties between the Ukrainian Hetmanate and the Russian Tsardom of the past 150 years.
"Moscow, that is, the Great Russian nation, has always been hateful to our Little Russian nation (Ukraine); in its malicious intentions it has long resolved to drive our nation to perdition."
Meanwhile, however, Peter employed all the state power of the tsardom to bear on Mazepa, appointing another hetman to take his place, to have the Russian Orthodox Church pronounce an anathema against Mazepa, to threaten the same to all those who dared to follow Mazepa, and to pressure all the rank-and-file Cossacks, townspeople and peasants to join the Muscovite side. Several colonels who had pledged their support to Mazepa, even those who had pressured him to defect to Sweden, themselves defected back to Muscovy, or failed to deliver military reinforcements to Mazepa as they had promised. By the time of the Battle of Poltava, more Cossacks were on the Muscovite side than on the side of Charles and Mazepa.
Moreover, the Battle of Koniecpol (21 November 1708) completely turned the tide of the succession struggle in Poland: the Sandomierz Confederation crushed the Warsaw Confederation, and would soon restore the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth under the anti-Swedish king Augustus II the Strong. This left the combined armies of Sweden and Ukraine isolated on the Left Bank of the Dnipro.
Early 1709
By the end of the winter of 1708–1709, the "Great Frost of 1709" had devastated the Swedish army and shrunk it to 24,000 men. In January 1709, the Swedish-Cossack forces managed to win the Siege of Veprik, and on 8 February the Battle of Oposhnya, both in present-day Poltava Oblast. Charles ventured into Sloboda Ukraine, hoping to meet the Russian army in a decisive battle at Okhtyrka, but apart from the relatively small Battle of Krasnokutsk–Gorodnoye (21 February 1709) in which the Swedes routed the Russians, the latter managed to avoid a major pitched engagement.
Zaporizhian Cossacks join Sweden
In March 1709, Mazepa managed to convince the Zaporizhian Cossacks, led by Kish otaman Kost Hordiienko of the Chortomlyk Sich, to join him in supporting the Swedish side against Russia. Hordiienko's Cossacks defeated the Russian forces at the Battle of Tsarichanka (1709) on 6 April 1709. Out of revenge, the Russians destroyed the Chortomlyk Sich on 25 May 1709. The Zaporizhian Cossacks would establish the new Kamianka Sich shortly thereafter.
The Battle of Sokilka (23 April) on the Vorskla between the Swedes and Muscovites remained inconclusive.
The Siege of Poltava began on 7 April 1709 at the recommendation of Mazepa to Charles: this city in the southern Cossack Hetmanate was essential to capture. When a storming failed, Charles began besieging and bombarding the city in an attempt to force its capitulation.
Battle of Poltava
In May 1709, the Swedish forces caught up to the Russians, and in early July, the two armies clashed in the Battle of Poltava. The Swedish were defeated, and the greater part of Charles's army, some 19,000 men, were forced to surrender at Perevolochna.
Aftermath
Charles fled with his surviving 543 men to the protection of the Ottoman Turks to the south, who were traditionally hostile to Russia. Here, Charles was eventually able to persuade the Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia. Backed by a Turkish army of 200,000 men, Charles led the Turks into the Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711). Before Charles could give battle, though, Peter was able to bribe the Turkish vizier to make peace; with this, Charles's ambitions to invade Russia were ended.
Consequences
The consequences of the failed invasion were far-reaching. The Swedish Empire never added new territory after the Battle of Poltava, and shortly thereafter lost more possessions. George I of Great Britain led Great Britain and Prussia into war against Sweden, and Denmark reentered the war. Russia maintained its conquered possessions in Ingria and the Baltic, was able to consolidate its hold over Ukraine and Poland, develop the new city of Saint Petersburg, and gain vital trade links in the Baltic trade. During the invasion, no less than 20,000 Swedish soldiers and thousands more civilians fell into Russian captivity.