Between 1518 and 1658, armed conflict took place between the native Sinhalese kingdoms of Sri Lanka (then known to Europeans as Ceylon), and the Portuguese Empire. It spanned from the Transitional to the Kandyan periods of Sri Lankan history. A combination of political and military moves gained the Portuguese control over most of the island, but their invasion of the final independent kingdom was a disaster, leading to a stalemate in the wider war and a truce from 1621. In 1638 the war restarted when the Dutch East India Company intervened in the conflict, initially as an ally of the Sinhalese against the Portuguese, but later as an enemy of both sides. The war concluded in 1658, with the Dutch in control of about half the island, the Kingdom of Kandy the other half, and the Portuguese expelled.
The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505, initially as merchants for the lucrative spice trade. Sri Lanka's Crisis of the Sixteenth Century (1521–1597) began with the Vijayabā Kollaya, the partitioning of the Kingdom of Kotte among three brothers, who began a series of wars over the succession. Starting in 1527, the Portuguese began to intervene in internal Sinhalese politics and exploiting the rivalries among the various kingdoms. The Portuguese expanded their influence by placing client rulers on the thrones of several kingdoms and directly ruling other areas. These machinations gained the Portuguese control over the Kingdom of Kotte starting in 1551. However the main beneficiary was the Kingdom of Sitawaka, was able to expand between 1521 and 1587 – through conquest of other native kingdoms – until it controlled most of Sri Lanka. Rajasinha I of Sitawaka attempted to expel the Portuguese from the island, but was repulsed with heavy losses at the siege of Colombo in 1587–8. Most of the newly conquered territories then rebelled against Sitawaka. The divided and disorganised rival kingdoms became easy targets for further Portuguese expansion, and in a series of military conflicts and political manoeuvres the Portuguese extended their control over the kingdoms of Jaffna (1591), Raigama (1593), and Sitawaka (1593).
In 1592 the Portuguese placed a client ruler on the throne of the Kingdom of Kandy, but he died soon after in suspicious circumstances and they were forced to withdraw. Seeking to subdue the last major kingdom in Sri Lanka, the Portuguese launched a military invasion of Kandy in the Campaign of Danture of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army wiped out by Kandyan forces. The war became a stalemate, with further Portuguese attempts to conquer Kandy repeatedly repulsed, whilst the Kandyans were unable to oust the Portuguese from the rest of the island. A series of rebellions in both Portuguese held territory and the Kandyan Kingdom led both sides to agree to a truce in 1621. The treaty led to Kandy formally becoming a vassal state of Portugal, but in reality maintaining its independence. This allowed both sides to crush the rebellions in their respective territories, and ended direct conflict between them for the next seventeen years. A small Danish expedition attacked Portuguese Ceylon in 1619, but was expelled from the island in 1622. The Portuguese were also able to conquer the Vanni chieftains in 1621.
The uneasy peace was eventually broken by the intervention of the Dutch East India Company in 1638, who sought to exploit the situation to take over Portuguese possessions as part of the Dutch–Portuguese War. The Dutch formed an alliance with Kandy; together they won several battles against the Portuguese, most notably the siege of Galle in 1640. However, the Dutch-Kandyan alliance broke down and the three remaining powers fought each other in triangular warfare for a time. The Dutch and Kandyans renewed their alliance in 1649 to drive the Portuguese from the island. The Portuguese stronghold at Colombo was conquered in 1656, but once this was done the Dutch immediately betrayed their Kandayn allies, taking over the Portuguese possessions. By the end of the war in 1658 all Portuguese forces had been expelled from the island. The Kingdom of Kandy was the only surviving indigenous polity, ruling almost half of Sri Lanka. The Dutch were left in control of the major population centres.
Background
The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505 and established trade relations with the Kotte kingdom. During the early 16th century their intentions were directed towards defending their trading interests, particularly the lucrative spice trade. However, with time this policy gradually changed to territorial ambitions with the objective of outright conquest. Island resources, Sri Lanka's strategic location for both trade and naval security and rise of the Mughal Empire in India influenced this change.
Early stages (1518–1521)
In 1518, the Governor of Portuguese India (Lopo Soares de Albergaria) obtained authorization from King Parakramabahu VIII of Kotte to build a trading post in Colombo, protected by a palisade and a wall of rammed earth, to be erected at the edge of the port. A treaty was signed between Kotte and Portugal, with terms including: Parakramabahu officially declared himself a vassal of the Portuguese king Manuel I, offered a tribute of 10 elephants, 20 ruby rings and 400 cinnamon bars, and in exchange Portugal would provide military support for Kotte.
Siege of Colombo (1520)
The construction of the fort sparked a riot in Colombo, instigated by Muslim merchants and Buddhist monks. The construction site was attacked by Sinhalese, armed with bows and a few cannons – originally offered by the Muslim merchants to Parakramabahu – but the mob was dispersed by the much more powerful bombardment of the Portuguese ships anchored in the harbour. Parakramabahu intervened to put an end to the dispute, supporting the Portuguese.
Siege of Colombo (1521)
Parakramabahu died of natural causes shortly thereafter, being succeeded by Vijayabahu VII, who was opposed to Portuguese presence. Relations worsened, with the local population refusing to sell supplies to the Portuguese. In 1520, the now-complete fortress was besieged by a large army led by Vijayabahu, equipped with several hundred firearms. After a six-month siege, Portuguese reinforcements arrived by sea, which forced Vijayabahu to lift the siege.
Partition of Kotte
In 1521, the three sons of Vijayabahu rebelled and killed him. The sons (Bhuvanekabahu, Pararajasingha, and Mayadunne) divided Vijayabahu's kingdom among themselves in the 'Spoiling of Vijayabahu'. Mayadunne received the Kingdom of Sitawaka, Pararajasingha was given the Kingdom of Raigama (taking the name Raigama Bandara), and Bhuvanekabahu ruled over the remaining part of Kotte (as Bhuvanekabahu VII). This event began the Crisis of the Sixteenth Century. The rivalries between these three new realms gave the Portuguese an opportunity to expand their influence on the island, by becoming involved in its internal politics.
The Portuguese initially focused on securing their fort in Colombo and the cinnamon trade that took place there. Bhuvanekabahu of Kotte renewed the alliance that had been agreed by Parakramabahu, so the Portuguese also helped to defend Kotte against attacks from Sitawaka. Portuguese influence over Kotte grew with the military aid they provided.
Defence of Kotte against Sitawaka (1521–1588)
The first invasion of Kotte by Mayadunne was repulsed by a Bhuvanekabahu, assisted by forces despatched by the Portuguese Viceroy of Goa. Another attempt at seizing Kotte in 1537 failed when Mayadunne's forces were defeated by forces under the command of the Portuguese captain-major in Colombo, Afonso de Souza; a fleet sent from Calicut to assist was on this occasion defeated by the Portuguese at Vedalai. A truce was negotiated between Sitawaka and Kotte in the aftermath of the conflict, and Mayadunne turned his attention south to the kingdom of Raigama, which he annexed following the death of Raigam Bandara (Pararajasinha) in 1538.
With Raigam Bandara's death in 1538 Mayadunne annexed the Kingdom of Raigama and invaded Kotte a third time. Buvanekabahu VII defeated Mayadunne's invading forces with the help of the Portuguese, eventually paving the way to an uneasy peace. The Portuguese wanted to conduct a full-scale offensive against Sitawaka and neutralize King Mayadunne, but King Bhuvanekabahu VII did not support their cause; he only wanted Portuguese help for defensive purposes.
Two more invasions of Kotte followed in the next five years. The fourth invasion, beginning in 1539, failed following resistance organised by the new Portuguese captain-major in Colombo, Miguel Ferreira. Calicut yet again provided troops and weaponry to Sitawaka; however, following defeat, Kulhenamarikkar and Pachimarikkar, two of the Zamorin's generals, were handed over to the Portuguese and the alliance between Calicut and Sitawaka ended. News in 1543 that Bhuvanekabahu had named his grandson Dharmapala as his successor prompted a fifth invasion, yet again repulsed with the aid Portuguese forces under the command of the new captain-General, António Barreto.
Portuguese involvement in the internal politics of Kotte increased with the arrival in 1550 of viceroy Afonso de Noronha and a contingent of some 500 Portuguese soldiers. The Portuguese sacked Sitawaka later that year. Accounts indicate that Mayadunne had adopted a policy of simply evacuating his capital and retreating into the surrounding terrain when the Portuguese approached. Once the Portuguese had left, the king's forces would harassed them along the route down to the Kelani river.
Siege of Kotte
In 1551 Bhuvanekabahu was killed by a shot fired by a Portuguese soldier, which was claimed to be an accidental discharge of the weapon. His young grandson, Dharmapala of Kotte, was established on the Kotte throne under the protection of the Portuguese.
After consulting with his council, Mayadunne proclaimed himself heir to the throne of Kotte and appealed to the subjects of Kotte to join his cause. Many chieftains and their followers answered and deserted to Sitawaka. Mayadunne taking the initiative rallied his forces to invade the Kingdom of Kotte. This sparked a series of new campaigns between the Kingdom of Sitawaka, the Kingdom of Kandy and the Portuguese.
The Siege of Kotte from November 1557 to November 1558 involved a 50,000 strong Sitawaka army led by King Mayadunne that besieged the capital of Kotte Kingdom Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte, for 12 months against combined Portuguese and Kotte forces, led by captain-major Dom Afonso Pereira de Lacerda. After receiving reinforcements from Mannar, Portuguese made a sally and succeeded in forcing the besiegers to withdraw. This siege marked the beginning of a series of battles between Portuguese and Sitawaka forces, and ultimately ended as Portuguese abandoned Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte in 1565.
Battle of Mulleriyawa
The battle of Mulleriyawa (1559) was a major military engagement between the Sinhalese Kingdom of Sitawaka and the Portuguese Empire. It is recorded as the worst defeat the Portuguese suffered in Asia. Led by the prince Tikiri Bandara, the Sitawaka army trapped the Portuguese in the muddy marshes of the Kelani Valley, where their heavy armor and firearms were useless. The prince used a pincer movement, attacking from multiple sides with elite Angampora fighters and war elephants equipped with iron chains. The Portuguese formations were completely broken, and nearly half of their soldiers were killed. This victory stopped Portuguese expansion into the island's interior and the local force could systematically destroy a professional European army using superior tactics and terrain.
Further campaigns involving Sitawaka
Pressing their advantage, Mayadunne and Tikiri Bandara launched a two-pronged attack on Kotte in 1564, laying siege to both Kotte and Colombo. Portuguese forces were forced to retreat from Kotte with Dharmapala, leaving Sitawaka in control of much of the kingdom. Major Sitawakan garrisons were established at Wattala, Nagalagama and Mapane.
A thin coastal strip, running from Negombo to Galle and including the fort in Colombo, was kept provisioned from the sea by Portuguese ships and remained in Portuguese hands. Strategically, this enabled them to harass and wage attritionary campaigns against the kingdom, the most notable being the invasion of 1574 which saw Negombo, Kalutara and Beruwala plundered, Sitawakan garrisons at Nagalagama and Mapane expelled, and the districts of Weligama and Chilaw ravaged.
Siege of Colombo (1587–1588)
Having conquered Kandy, King Rajasinha I of Sitawaka turned his attention to the Portuguese stronghold at Colombo. He timed the campaign to begin shortly after the start of the monsoon season, so the Portuguese would not be able to send reinforcements by sea. The Sinhalese army appeared around Colombo on 4 June, consisting of 50,000 men, 2200 pack elephants, 40,000 oxen, and 150 small calibre bronze cannon. Supporting the army were 65 light galleys which were to blockade the fortress by sea. The Portuguese captain defending Colombo was João de Correia de Brito, who had 300 Portuguese soldiers assisted by 700 Lascarins, plus a civilian population of some 60,000. Foreseeing the possibility of a siege, he had stockpiled supplies of food and ammunition. The Portuguese flotilla of 6 galleys was beached due to the weather, but nevertheless Brito sent a small craft over the sea to Goa with a distress call.
Knowing of Colombo's defences, which included a lagoon serving as a moat by its southern side, Rajasinha began the siege by having entrenchments dug around the walls and the lagoon drained, which took a month. With the digging complete, Rajasinha rallied his entire army outside Colombo in a display of force, shouting war-cries to intimidate the besieged. Undaunted, Brito ordered a sally against the troops closest to the city, throwing them into great confusion.
On the night of 3 August, the Rajasinha ordered the first mass assault. Thousands of Sinhalese attempted to scale Colombo's earthen walls, while sappers (aided by hundreds of elephants) tried to breach them. They were met with superior Portuguese firepower. Some Sinhalese were able to climb onto the bastions São Lourenço and São Gonçalo, but were repelled by a swift Portuguese counter attack. By the following morning, the Sinhalese had been driven off, having suffered 400 dead and 2,000 wounded.
Over the following months Rajasinha attempted three more assaults on Colombo, along with attempts to undermine the walls, while the Portuguese conducted sorties against Sinhalese positions. With the end of the monsoon, the first Portuguese reinforcements from Goa arrived on 11 September. Further ships carrying reinforcements arrived on 4 October, 23 October, 4 November, and 15 February. Finally, on 18 February a large fleet of eighteen galleys commanded by Manuel de Sousa Coutinho arrived, after raiding Sitawakan shores in northwestern Sri Lanka. The fleet sailed in battle formation and sounded its guns; the Portuguese defenders greeted it by ringing their church bells and firing a general salvo from the fortress' cannon.
With the arrival of the reinforcements, there were now 2,000 Portuguese soldiers inside the fortress, in addition to the lascarins and civilian defenders. Rajasinha realised that the opportunity to take Colombo had been lost and lifted the siege shortly afterwards. Over the eight-month campaign, the Sinhalese had lost 5,000 men.
Portuguese campaigns against Jaffna, Sitawaka and Kandy
In 1588 Kandy rebelled against its new Sitawaka rulers. However, the heirs of the Kandyan royal family had fallen under Portuguese influence and were held in Colombo. In 1592 the Portuguese intervened in Kandy, placing their protégé Yamasinghe Bandara on the throne. However, the new ruler died in suspicious circumstances shortly after his coronation. The Portuguese accused a rival Kandyan faction of poisoning Bandara, but the Kandyans blamed the Portuguese, who were forced to withdraw. Vimaladharmasuriya I became the new king of Kandy.