The Second Fitna was the second civil war in the Islamic community during the early Umayyad Caliphate. It followed the death of the first Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I in 680 and lasted for about twelve years. The war involved three main challenges to the authority of the Umayyad dynasty: the first by Husayn ibn Ali and his supporters, including Sulayman ibn Surad and Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, who rallied to avenge Husayn's death in Iraq; the second by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who proclaimed himself caliph in Mecca and was nominally recognized throughout most of the Caliphate; and the third by the Kharijites, who took over central Arabia and southern Iraq and Persia.
The roots of the civil war date back to the First Fitna. After the assassination of the third Rashidun caliph Uthman, the Islamic community experienced its first civil war over the immediate question of retribution for his murder. Following the assassination of the fourth Rashidun caliph Ali in 661 and the abdication of his eldest son Hasan the same year, Mu'awiya became the sole ruler of the caliphate. Mu'awiya's unprecedented decision to nominate his son Yazid as his successor sparked opposition, and tensions soared after Mu'awiya's death. Husayn was invited by the Alid partisans of Kufa to overthrow the Umayyads but was intercepted and killed with his small company at the Battle of Karbala in October 680. Yazid's Syrian army suppressed a rebellion in Medina in August 683 and subsequently besieged Mecca, where Ibn al-Zubayr had established himself in opposition to Yazid.
After Yazid died in November, the siege was abandoned, and Umayyad authority soon collapsed throughout the caliphate following the death of his son, except in parts of Syria where Marwan I was proclaimed caliph; most provinces recognized Ibn al-Zubayr as caliph. A series of pro-Alid movements demanding to avenge Husayn's death emerged in Kufa, beginning with Ibn Surad's Penitents movement, which was crushed by the Umayyads at the Battle of Ayn al-Warda in January 685. Kufa was then taken over by Mukhtar, who rallied Husayn's supporters and the disenfranchised mawali to his cause. Though his forces routed the Umayyads at the Battle of Khazir in August 686, Mukhtar and his supporters were slain by the Zubayrids in April 687 following a series of battles. Under Marwan, the Umayyads consolidated their control of Syria and retook Egypt from the Zubayrids. Under his successor Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the Umayyads reconquered Iraq after defeating the Zubayrids at the Battle of Maskin in 691 and reasserted their authority over the Caliphate after killing Ibn al-Zubayr in the second siege of Mecca in 692, while their general al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf suppressed the Kharijites in the years afterwards.
Abd al-Malik made key reforms to the administrative structure of the Caliphate, including the centralization of caliphal power, the restructuring of the military, and the implementation of Arabization and Islamization policies on the bureaucracy. The events of the Second Fitna intensified sectarian tendencies in Islam, and various doctrines were developed within what would later become the Sunni and Shi'a denominations of Islam.
Background
First Fitna
After the assassination of the third caliph Uthman ibn Affan in 656, the rebels and the townspeople of Medina proclaimed Ali ibn Abi Talib, a cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the fourth caliph. Most of the Quraysh (the grouping of Meccan clans to which Muhammad and all the early caliphs belonged), led by the prominent companions Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Muhammad's widow Aisha, refused to recognize Ali's authority. They called for revenge against Uthman's killers and the election of a new caliph through shura (consultation). Ali emerged victorious against these early opponents at the Battle of the Camel near Basra in November 656, thereupon moving his capital to the Iraqi garrison town of Kufa.
Uthman's kinsman Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the Umayyad governor of Syria, also denounced Ali's legitimacy as caliph, and Ali's Iraqi army fought against Mu'awiya's Syrian forces at the Battle of Siffin. The battle ended in a stalemate in July 657 when the Iraqis stopped fighting in response to the Syrians' calls for arbitration. Ali reluctantly agreed, but a faction of his forces, later called the Kharijites, broke away in protest, condemning his acceptance of arbitration as blasphemous. The arbitration failed to settle the conflict between Ali and Mu'awiya, who conquered Egypt soon after. Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite dissident Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam in January 661, after Ali's forces had killed most of the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan. Ali's eldest son Hasan was proclaimed caliph in Kufa, but Mu'awiya challenged his authority and invaded Iraq with his Syrian army. In August, the embattled Hasan abdicated the caliphate to Mu'awiya, who was then crowned caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem.
Yazid's succession
The treaty brought a temporary peace but established no framework for succession. As it had in the past, the issue of succession could potentially lead to problems in the future. The orientalist Bernard Lewis writes: "The only precedents available to Mu'awiya from Islamic history were election and civil war. The former was unworkable; the latter had obvious drawbacks." Mu'awiya wanted to settle the issue in his lifetime by designating his son Yazid as his successor. In 676, he announced his nomination of Yazid. With no precedent in Islamic history, hereditary succession aroused opposition from different quarters, and the nomination was considered the corruption of the caliphate into a monarchy. Mu'awiya summoned a shura council in Damascus and persuaded representatives from various provinces by diplomacy and bribes. The sons of a few of Muhammad's prominent companions including Husayn ibn Ali, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Umar and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, all of whom, by virtue of their descent, could also lay claim to the caliphal office, opposed the nomination. Mu'awiya's threats and the general recognition of Yazid throughout the Caliphate forced them into silence.
Historian Fred Donner writes that contentions over the leadership of the Muslim community had not been settled in the First Fitna and resurfaced with the death of Mu'awiya in April 680. Before his death, Mu'awiya cautioned Yazid that Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr might challenge his rule and instructed him to defeat them if they did. Ibn al-Zubayr, in particular, was considered dangerous and was to be treated harshly, unless he came to terms. Upon his succession, Yazid charged the governor of Medina, his cousin Walid ibn Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, to secure allegiance from Husayn, Ibn al-Zubayr and Ibn Umar, with force if necessary. Walid sought the advice of his kinsman Marwan ibn al-Hakam. He counseled that Ibn al-Zubayr and Husayn should be forced to give allegiance as they were dangerous, while Ibn Umar should be left alone since he posed no threat. Walid summoned the two, but Ibn al-Zubayr escaped to Mecca. Husayn answered the summons but declined to give allegiance in the secretive environment of the meeting, suggesting it should be done in public. Marwan threatened to imprison him, but due to Husayn's kinship with Muhammad, Walid was unwilling to take any action against him. A few days later, Husayn left for Mecca without giving allegiance. In the view of the Islamicist G. R. Hawting, "tensions and pressures which had been suppressed by Mu'awiya came to the surface during Yazid's caliphate and erupted after his death, when Umayyad authority was temporarily eclipsed."
Pro-Alid Movements
Revolt of Husayn ibn Ali
Husayn had considerable support in Kufa. The inhabitants of the town had fought the Umayyads and their Syrian allies during the First Fitna. They were dissatisfied with Hasan's abdication and strongly resented Umayyad rule. After the death of Hasan in 669, they had attempted unsuccessfully to interest Husayn in revolting against Mu'awiya. After Mu'awiya died, the partisans of Ali in Kufa once again invited Husayn, who was then in Mecca, to lead them in revolt against Yazid. To assess the situation, Husayn sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil, who gained widespread support in Kufa and sent a letter advising Husayn to join his sympathizers there. Yazid removed Nu'man ibn Bashir as governor due to his inaction over Ibn Aqil's activities and replaced him with Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, then governor of Basra. Ibn Ziyad suppressed the rebellion and executed Ibn Aqil. Encouraged by Ibn Aqil's letter, and unaware of his execution, Husayn left for Kufa. To track him down, Ibn Ziyad stationed troops along the routes leading to the city. He was intercepted at Karbala, a desert plain north of Kufa. Some 4,000 troops arrived later to force his submission to Yazid. After a few days of negotiations and his refusal to submit, Husayn was killed alongside 70 of his male companions in the Battle of Karbala on 10 October 680.
Tawwabin uprising
A few prominent Alid supporters in Kufa seeking to atone for their failure to assist Husayn, which they considered a sin, launched a movement under Sulayman ibn Surad, a companion of Muhammad and an ally of Ali, to fight the Umayyads. Calling themselves the "Tawwabin" (Penitents), they remained underground while the Umayyads controlled Iraq. After caliph Yazid's death and the subsequent ouster of Ibn Ziyad, the Tawwabin openly called for avenging Husayn's slaying. Although they attracted large-scale support in Kufa, they lacked a political program, their chief objective being to punish the Umayyads or sacrifice themselves in the process. When Mukhtar returned to Kufa, he attempted to dissuade the Tawwabin from their endeavor in favor of an organized movement to gain control of the city. Ibn Surad's stature prevented his followers from accepting Mukhtar's proposal. Out of the 16,000 men who enlisted, 4,000 mobilized for the fight. In November 684, the Tawwabin left to confront the Umayyads, after mourning for a day at Husayn's grave in Karbala. The two armies met in January 685 at the Battle of Ayn al-Warda in the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia). The battle lasted for three days during which most of the Tawwabin, including Ibn Surad, were killed, while a few escaped to Kufa.
Revolt of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi
Since his return to Kufa, Mukhtar had been calling for revenge against Husayn's killers and the establishment of a caliphate for the family of Ali in the name of Husayn's half-brother Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, while declaring himself his representative. The defeat of the Tawwabin left him as the leader of the partisans of Ali in Kufa. In October 685, Mukhtar and his supporters, a significant number of whom consisted of local, non-Arab converts (mawali), overthrew Ibn al-Zubayr's governor and seized control of Kufa. His control extended to most of Iraq and parts of north-western Iran. His preferential treatment of the mawali, whom he awarded equal status with the Arabs, resulted in rebellion of the Arab tribal nobility. After crushing the rebellion, Mukhtar executed Kufans involved in the killing of Husayn, including Umar ibn Sa'd, the commander of the army that had killed Husayn. As a result of these measures, thousands of Kufan ashraf fled to Basra. He then sent his general Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar to confront an approaching Umayyad army, led by Ibn Ziyad, which had been sent to reconquer the province. The Umayyad army was routed at the Battle of Khazir in August 686 and Ibn Ziyad was killed. In Basra, Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath, Shabath ibn Rib'i and other Kufan refugees, who were anxious to return to their city and regain their lost privileges, persuaded its governor Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr, the younger brother of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, to attack Kufa. Mukhtar sent his army to confront Mus'ab, but it was defeated in the first battle at Madhar located on the Tigris between Basra and Kufa. Mukhtar's army retreated to Harura, a village near Kufa but was annihilated by Mus'ab's forces in the second battle there. Mukhtar and his remaining supporters took refuge in Kufa's palace, where they were besieged by Mus'ab. Four months later in April 687, Mukhtar was killed while attempting a sortie. Some 6,000 of his supporters surrendered, whom Mus'ab executed under pressure from Ibn al-Ash'ath's son Abd al-Rahman and other ashraf. Mukhtar's fall left the Umayyads and the Zubayrids as the remaining belligerents in the war.
Zubayrid Caliphate
Opposition in Mecca and Medina
Following Husayn's death, Yazid faced increased opposition to his rule from Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, a son of Muhammad's companion Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and a grandson of the first caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632–634). Ibn al-Zubayr secretly began taking allegiance in Mecca, though publicly he only called for a shura to elect a new caliph. At first, Yazid tried placating him by sending gifts and delegations in an attempt to reach a settlement. After Ibn al-Zubayr's refusal to recognize him, Yazid sent a force led by Ibn al-Zubayr's estranged brother Amr to arrest him. The force was defeated and Amr was executed. In addition to the growing influence of Ibn al-Zubayr in Medina, the city's inhabitants were disillusioned with Umayyad rule and Mu'awiya's agricultural projects, which included confiscation of their lands to increase government revenue. Yazid invited the notables of Medina to Damascus and tried to win them over with gifts. They were unpersuaded, however, and on their return to Medina narrated tales of Yazid's lavish lifestyle and practices considered by many to be impious, including drinking wine, hunting with hounds and his love for music. The Medinans, under the leadership of Abd Allah ibn Hanzala, renounced their allegiance to Yazid and expelled the governor, Yazid's cousin Uthman ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Sufyan, and the Umayyads residing in the city. Yazid dispatched a 12,000-strong Syrian army under the command of Muslim ibn Uqba to reconquer the Hejaz (western Arabia). After failed negotiations, the Medinans were defeated in the Battle of al-Harra, and the city was plundered for three days. Having forced the rebels to renew their allegiance, Yazid's army headed for Mecca to subdue Ibn al-Zubayr.
Ibn Uqba died on the way and command passed to Husayn ibn Numayr, who besieged Mecca in September 683. The siege lasted for several weeks, during which the Ka'aba caught fire. Yazid's sudden death in November ended the campaign. After trying unsuccessfully to persuade Ibn al-Zubayr to accompany him to Syria and be declared caliph there, Ibn Numayr left with his troops. With the death of Yazid and the withdrawal of Syrian troops, Ibn al-Zubayr was now the de facto ruler of the Hejaz and the rest of Arabia, and he was openly proclaimed caliph. Soon afterwards, he was recognized in Egypt, as well as in Iraq where the Umayyad governor Ibn Ziyad had been expelled by the tribal nobility (ashraf). At its peak, the Zubayrid Caliphate’s reach was so extensive that coins bearing Ibn al-Zubayr's name were minted as far east as southern Persia (Fars and Kirman)