The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II was an uprising by kuraka-led Aymara, Quechua, and mestizo rebels aimed at overthrowing Spanish colonial rule in Peru, from 1780 to 1783. The causes of the rebellion included opposition to the Bourbon Reforms, an economic downturn in colonial Peru, and a grassroots revival of Inca cultural identity led by Túpac Amaru II, an indigenous kuraka and the leader of the rebellion. While Amaru II and other prominent rebel leaders were captured and executed by the Spanish in 1781, the rebellion continued for at least another year under Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru, Túpac Katari and Andrés Túpac Amaru, among others.
The rebellion arose as a reaction to the imposition of the Bourbon Reforms in the Spanish viceroyalties of America. These reforms, among others, forced the indigenous population to mine minerals under the Mit'a system, largely in Cerro Rico in Potosí. Among Túpac Amaru II's proclamations were the demands of the freedom of the indigenous population and the abolition of slavery.
The rebellion began with the capture and execution of Antonio de Arriaga, the corregidor of Tinta. This initial phase of the rebellion in Cusco and the south was marked by key victories, such as the capture of Ayaviri, the Battle of Pillpinto, and especially the Battle of Sangarará, which consolidated rebel control over the Cusco region. As royalist forces responded with a punitive expedition from Lima, the insurgent movement began to weaken. Túpac Amaru II was captured after being betrayed when retreating to Langui after the defeat in the Battle of Combapata on 5 April 1781, and Battle of Checacupe on 6 April. He, along with his family and other commanders, were executed in the Plaza de Armas of Cusco on 18 May 1781. Despite the death of Túpac Amaru II, Túpac Katari and Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru continued the rebellion until 1783.
Tupac Amaru II's rebellion was simultaneous, and occasionally cooperated, with the uprising of Túpac Katari in colonial-era Upper Peru (now Bolivia). The rebellion was the first large-scale attempt at an independence movement in Latin America and the largest revolt in the Americas prior to the Spanish American wars of independence and Haitian Revolution.
Background
The government of Spain, to streamline the operation of its colonial empire, began introducing what became known as the Bourbon Reforms throughout South America. In 1776, as part of these reforms, it created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata by separating Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) and the territory that is now Argentina from the Viceroyalty of Peru. These territories included the economically important silver mines at Potosí, whose economic benefits began to flow to Buenos Aires in the east instead of Cuzco and Lima to the west. The economic hardship this introduced to parts of the Altiplano combined with systemic oppression of indigenous and mestizo underclasses (a recurring source of localized uprisings throughout Spanish colonial South America) to create an environment in which a large-scale uprising could occur.
In 1778 Spain raised sales taxes (known as the alcabala) on goods such as rum and pulque (the common alcoholic beverages of the peasants and commoners) while tightening the rest of its tax system in its colonies, in part to fund its participation in the American Revolutionary War. José Gabriel Condorcanqui, an upper-class indigenous leader with claims to the Inca royal lineage, adopted the name Túpac Amaru II (alluding to Túpac Amaru, the last Inca emperor), and in 1780 called for rebellion. He claimed to be acting on behalf of the King of Spain, enforcing royal authority on the corrupt and treacherous colonial administration. In 1780, during the rebellion, Fernando Vélaz de Medrano, 4th Marquess of Tabuérniga, informed the Prince of Asturias (the future Charles IV of Spain) about the rebellion and widespread corruption among royal officials in South America, particularly regarding the playing card and tobacco monopolies imposed by Minister José de Gálvez, which were seen as a catalyst for the unrest.
Túpac Amaru was motivated in part by reading of a prophecy that the Inca would rule again with British support. He may have been aware of the British colonial rebellion in North America and Spanish involvement in the war. Additionally, the growth of mining as a source of colonial revenue was largely caused by the increased burden placed on indigenous workers who formed the base of the labor used to mine silver, leading to increased unrest.
First phase
Capture and execution of Antonio de Arriaga
On 4 November 1780, after a celebration of the king Charles III in Yanaoca, where cacique Túpac Amaru II and supporters seized Antonio Arriaga, the corregidor of his hometown of Tinta and interim Governor of Tucumán. They forced him to write letters to his treasurer in Tinta requesting money and arms and to other influential individuals and kurakas ordering them to congregate in Tungasuca, where Arriaga was being held prisoner. While Arriaga was being kept in the basement of Túpac Amaru and Micaela Bastidas's home, Túpac Amaru traveled to Arriaga's home in Tinta to seize arms, money, and resources. On 10 November, six days after his capture, Arriaga was executed by hanging by his slave, in front of thousands of gathered indigenous, mestizos, and criollos (locals of recognized Spanish descent).
On 16 November 1780, Túpac Amaru issued a proclamation decreeing the emancipation of Afro-Peruvian and African slaves. In this document, he exhorted all "decent" Spaniards, the clergy, and others friendly with the Peruvian population to join the fight against the hostilities and abuses of the European population; and all those who had been mistreated by the "chapetones" (a derogatory term for Spaniards), including slaves, to abandon them. This decision served a tactical purpose: with the escape of the slaves, the colonial export economy would collapse and the rebel forces would grow. Furthermore, the psychological effect was that in Lima, the upper classes on their haciendas would be more concerned about the defiant slaves and the free blacks and mulattos than about the population of the highlands. These also included ending the mita rotational labor system and limiting the power of the corregidor and thus amplifying his power as cacique and Túpac sought to create a new audiencia at Cusco.
According to the testimony of two possible rebels, Pascual Gutiérrez Sonco and Manuel Chuquipata, captured in December by the mayor of Carabuco, Túpac Amaru requested that his troops use crosses to distinguish themselves. Those who were not indigenous wore paper crosses on their hats, while the indigenous ones wore straw crosses.
Expansion of the rebellion
Following the assassination of Arriaga, Túpac began moving through the countryside, gaining supporters, primarily from the indigenous and mestizo classes, but also with some creoles and freed slaves. Creole Antonio de Figueroa joined the rebels, commanding the artillery regiment.
On 17 November, the forces sent by the Spanish authorities in Cusco arrived at the town of Sangarará, camping around the church. The Spanish militia were led by corregidores Tiburcio Landa, Fernando Cabrera, and Pedro Sahuaraura. There was poor communication and much disagreement on location of the Spanish camp between the corregidores. On the morning of 18 November, Túpac Amaru's army, which had grown to several thousand men, defeated them at the Battle of Sangarará. Tomasa Tito Condemayta led a women's garrison during the battle. A cartridge of a Spanish soldier caught fire and burned the church. Túpac then turned south, against the advice of his wife and lieutenant Micaela Bastidas, who urged him to attack Cusco before the government could mobilize. Micaela Bastidas was a pivotal force in the rebellion and is often overlooked. Bastidas was known for leading an uprising in the Tungasuca region. Indigenous communities often sided with the rebels, and local militias put up little resistance. It was not long before Túpac's forces had taken control of almost the entire southern Peruvian plateau.
Following his victory at Sangarará, Túpac Amaru returned triumphantly to Tungasuca in mid-November 1780. He and Micaela Bastidas, however, were aware that they had only defeated the first wave sent by the hastily organized junta in the city of Cusco, and they expected a fierce royalist offensive from Peru's second-largest city, Cusco. They were also concerned about an attack by viceroyal troops from the south, either from the Lake Titicaca area or from the city of Arequipa to the southwest. Many in the rebel camp believed that the royalists would first reinforce their forces at their base in the Sacred Valley before advancing north toward the city of Cusco. However, Túpac Amaru planned his strategy southward, towards Lake Titicaca, a predominantly indigenous area where his message of freedom would be very well received in a region that endured the abuses of the mining mita, particularly for the silver mines of Potosí. The Aymara leader, Túpac Katari, claimed to be the viceroy appointed by Tupac Amaru II and led his forces to besiege the city of La Paz with his wife Bartolina Sisa in March 1781.
Spanish reaction
90 kilometers away in Cusco, Bishop Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta directed the royalist efforts, raising money, organizing processions, and communicating with the authorities in Lima, his priests in rebel territory, and the militia leaders. News of the Túpac Amaru uprising and the execution of Arriaga reached Lima on 24 November 1780, causing alarm in the city. Viceroy Agustín de Jáuregui convened an emergency meeting with the Inspector General of the Navy, Commander José del Valle, the Inspector General José Antonio de Areche, and the members of the Supreme Court. On November 28, Colonel Gabriel de Avilés, departed for Cusco at the head of a select cavalry squadron of 200 members of the militia of the "free pardos" (people of mixed race), with orders to recruit soldiers along their march to Cusco and, if necessary, to bring men from Arequipa.
Túpac Amaru's campaigns in the south
The rebel troops left Tungasuca on 22 November, heading towards the towns of Pichigu, Yauri, and Coporaque, where the royalist curaca Eugenio Sinayuca was proselytizing against the rebellion. The rebel tactic followed a standard procedure: while scouts searched for enemies and supplies, Túpac Amaru delivered a passionate speech about his movement from the church steps. Many listeners joined the rebel forces, and on 25 November, Túpac Amaru wrote a proclamation addressed to the population of Lampa, announcing his campaign against Spanish tyranny and abuses, as well as his commitment to the Creoles; at the same time, he boasted of having 6,000 followers, including indigenous people, Creoles, and people from outside the area.
After attacking the mining town of Caylloma in late November, from which Spanish officials fled with large amounts of money from the royal treasuries and silver, Túpac Amaru's forces crossed the glacier-covered mountains of La Raya, the dividing line between Cusco and Puno.
In mid-November, the royalists had captured Simón Noguera, nephew of Túpac Amaru, at the Queque hacienda, near Santa Rosa, while he was carrying out reconnaissance duties and delivering letters and proclamations inciting rebellion; and, despite the pleas of the local residents, the corregidor Horé pronounced the death sentence. The corregidores of Chucuito, Lampa, Azángaro, Puno, and Carabaya, met in a junta in Lampa on December 4, where they oversaw Noguera's execution. The death of her nephew caused grief to Micaela Bastidas; and Túpac Amaru, who vowed revenge, ordered one rebel group to occupy the Queque hacienda, while another marched to Lampa, from where the corregidores fled and deserters joined Túpac Amaru's side. The leader and his troops triumphantly entered Ayaviri on December 6, where the priests met with them formally and Túpac Amaru gave a speech to recruit men for his army and reassure the Creoles and mestizos.
From Lampa, where he stayed for three days, Túpac Amaru considered going to Upper Peru to join the rebels there led by Túpac Katari, who had begun the Siege of Sorata. He also contemplated the possibility of attacking Arequipa or laying siege to Puno; however, numerous letters from Micaela Bastidas persuaded him to return. Correspondence between Túpac Amaru and his wife revealed their concern that the royalists would attack Tungasuca.
Diego Cristóbal's campaign in the north
Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru, José Gabriel's first cousin, led 6,000 followers toward Paucartambo and the Sacred Valley with the strategy of separating this important agricultural area from the city of Cusco and, if successful in that campaign, attacking the city from the fortress of Sacsayhuamán.
Preparing the attack on Paucartambo, rebel forces recruited people in the highland towns of Ocongate, Caicay and Ccata, and then approached Pisac along the Vilcanota River. The commanders of the Cusco War Junta, concerned about this rebel offensive, sent their militias as reinforcements on December 8, along with rifles and ammunition commanded by Lorenzo Pérez Lechuga, a veteran of the Spanish wars in Italy, who joined the defense of Paucartambo, led by Major Francisco Celorio. With the support of the troops of the curacas of Chinchero, Maras and Huayllabamba, the royalists managed to defeat Diego Cristóbal's forces near the Pisac bridge, preventing them from taking this important crossing, and ended the battle by massacring all the prisoners. In retaliation, in Calca, the rebels killed all Europeans indiscriminately under the premise of "killing everyone who wore a shirt".