Pompey's campaign against the pirates represented the final phase of the Roman Republic's efforts to combat piracy in the eastern Mediterranean, which had been adversely affecting the eastern Roman provinces. This campaign was completed in approximately 40 days under the command of Pompey in 67 B.C.
Historical context
Rome's first intervention in the Aegean Sea in response to piracy occurred in 189 B.C., when Lucius Fabius Labeo, commander of the fleet, undertook a mission on the island of Crete. However, he was unsuccessful in securing the return of Roman citizens who had been captured by pirates.
Subsequent Roman interventions took place in the seas around Asia Minor following the establishment of the first province in the East, Asia (133—129 B.C.). In 102 B.C., the consul Marcus Antonius led a campaign in the Cilician area. His reported successes against pirate populations culminated in the establishment of a second Roman province, Cilicia, between 101 and 100 B.C. The latter province initially consisted of Lycaonia, Pisidia, Pamphylia, southeastern Phrygia, and part of Cilicia Trachea, although its coastline remained partially surrounded with pirates.
During the First Mithridatic War, Roman commander Quintus Brucius Sura initially faced Metrophanes with a small army, engaging in a naval confrontation in which he succeeded in sinking a large ship. He subsequently conducted raids on the harbor of Skiathos, a known pirate stronghold, where he executed slaves and mutilated freedmen who sought refuge there in 87 B.C. In the following years, from 86 to 85 BC, Sulla's legatus, Lucullus, was sent to collect a fleet consisting of ships from Cyprus, Phoenicia, Rhodes and Pamphylia. He faced multiple risks of capture by pirates while successfully ravaging much of their coastline.
At the conclusion of the First Mithridatic War, the province of Asia was left in a state of significant distress. The conflict had subjected its territories to persistent assaults by numerous pirate bands, which operated more like organized fleets than mere brigands. Mithridates VI had facilitated this increase in piracy during his campaign against the Roman coasts, anticipating that he would not maintain control over these regions for long. Consequently, the number of pirates surged, leading to continuous attacks on ports, fortresses, and cities. The pirates captured several cities, including Iassus, Samos, Clazomenae, and even Samothrace, where Sulla was present at the time. It was reported that they plundered the temple on Samothrace, which housed treasures valued at 1,000 Attic talents. Plutarch noted that the number of pirate ships exceeded 1,000, and the settlements they overtook totaled at least 400. They attacked and looted previously untouched locations, including sanctuaries such as those at Claros, Didyma, and Samothrace, as well as temples dedicated to Chthonia Terra at Hermione, Asclepius at Epidaurus, and Poseidon at Isthmus, Taenarum, and Kalaureia. They also defiled temples of Apollo at Actium and Lefkada, and those of Hera at Samos, Argos, and Lacinium. Additionally, they engaged in unusual sacrifices at Olympus and celebrated secret rites, including those dedicated to Mitra.
Between 78 B.C. and 75 B.C., Publius Servilius Vatia served as proconsul of Cilicia, achieving significant victories against the pirates, who were equipped with fast, light warships, ultimately forcing them to retreat into the Isauric hinterland. Vatia, an energetic and resolute commander, swiftly captured the city of Olympus in Lycia from the pirate leader Zenicetus, who died defending it. He then advanced through Pamphylia, seizing Phaselis, and entered Cilicia, where he took the coastal fortress of Corycus. After reclaiming all the coastal cities from the pirates, Vatia led his army across the Taurus Mountains, marking the first Roman incursion into the region, and aimed for the Isaurian capital of Isaura. He achieved this by diverting a river to deprive the city of water, successfully capturing it. For his commendable leadership, he was acclaimed imperator by his troops and awarded the Isauric agnomen. Upon his return to Rome, he celebrated his triumph in 74 B.C.. It is also noted that the young Julius Caesar participated in these campaigns as a military tribune. However, following these victories, new pirate raids targeted the city of Brindisi and Etruria,resulting in the abduction of women from noble Roman families and even a few praetors.
In 74 B.C., Marcus Antonius Creticus, the father of Mark Antony, led an expedition to the seas around Crete, which ultimately ended in defeat. Following this, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus undertook a new campaign, supported by the cities of Gortina (now Gortyn) and Polyrrhenion, which gradually subdued the main centers of anti-Roman resistance, including Cydonia, Knossos, Eleutera, Lappa, Lytto, and Hierapytna. This campaign faced challenges due to conflicts between Quintus Metellus and Lucius Octavius, a legate sent to the island by Pompey, who held extraordinary command against the pirates under the Gabinia law (lex Gabinia). After the successful conquest of Crete, Quintus Caecilius Metellus adopted the surname "Creticus." During this period, a notable incident involving the young Julius Caesar occurred. While en route to Rhodes in 74 B.C.—a destination favored by young Romans seeking to learn Greek culture and philosophy—he was kidnapped by pirates and taken to the island of Farmakonisi, located among the southern Sporades south of Miletus. When the pirates demanded a ransom of talents, Caesar countered that he would pay fifty talents and sent his companions to Miletus to collect the necessary funds. He chose to remain on Farmakonisi with two slaves and his personal physician. During his thirty-eight days in captivity, Caesar composed numerous poems, which he presented to his captors. He interacted with the pirates in a manner that suggested he was in command, repeatedly promising that he would have them executed once he regained his freedom. When Caesar's companions returned with the ransom money, he escaped to the province of Asia, where Marcus Iuncus served as propraetor. Upon reaching Miletus, Caesar equipped ships and returned to Farmakonisi, easily capturing the pirates. He then transported them to Bithynia, where Iuncus was managing the implementation of Nicomedes IV in his will. Although Caesar requested that the propraetor punish the pirates, Iuncus attempted to seize the ransom money for himself, and planned to resell the captives. Anticipating Iuncus's actions, Caesar set sail from Bithynia and executed the pirates himself, having them crucified after strangling them to spare them a prolonged death. According to pro-Cesarian sources, this act fulfilled his promise to the pirates during their captivity and allowed him to return the ransom money that his comrades had secured.
In 70 B.C., Praetor Caecilius Metellus successfully confronted the pirates surrounding the seas of Sicily and Campania, who had even sacked Gaeta, Ostia (in 69–68 B.C.) and had kidnapped the daughter of Marcus Antonius at Cape Miseno.
Casus belli
By 69 B.C., Pompey had become a favored figure among the Roman masses, although many members of the optimates were wary of his intentions. His prominence in the state was bolstered by two extraordinary proconsular appointments, unprecedented in Roman history. In 67 BC, two years after serving as consul, Pompey was appointed commander of a special fleet tasked with conducting a campaign against the pirates surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The Cilician pirates, in particular, had disrupted trade and relations among various populations, leading to widespread conflict and significant repercussions for maritime commerce, including the vital grain supply for the city of Rome. This situation had largely resulted from the Mithridatic Wars, which allowed these pirate bands to operate with impunity, plundering ports, cities, and merchant ships. Initially, the pirates, led by their commander Isodorus, restricted their activities to nearby waters, including those around Crete, Cyrene, Achaia, and Cape Maleas. The immense wealth derived from their plundering earned these waters the moniker "Golden Sea", but they eventually expanded their range of operations.
Pompey's appointment was controversial from the outset. The conservative faction in the Senate expressed suspicion regarding his intentions and feared the consolidation of his power. The optimates made numerous attempts to block his nomination. Notably, Julius Caesar was among the few senators who supported Pompey's leadership from the beginning. The nomination was ultimately advanced by the tribune of the plebs, Aulus Gabinius, who proposed the Lex Gabinia. This law granted Pompey command of the war against the Mediterranean pirates for a period of three years, conferring extensive powers that included absolute control over maritime operations and the coasts extending 400 stadia inland (approximately 70 km. This authority placed him above any military leader in the eastern provinces. In addition to these powers, Pompey was authorized to select 15 legates from the Senate to oversee key maritime areas, draw funds from the public treasury and tax collectors as needed, and command a fleet of 200 fully armed and equipped ships, including soldiers and oarsmen.
Forces in the field
Romans
According to the provisions set forth by the Senate, the army that Pompey could assemble for deployment throughout the Mediterranean was initially expected to comprise 500 ships, 120,000 armed men (approximately equivalent to 30 legions), and 5,000 cavalry. These forces would be under the command of 24 praetors and 2 quaestors, with a total budget of 1,000 Attic talents. Historical accounts indicate that Pompey sought assistance from the fleet of the Rhodians as well. In practice, however, the forces available to Pompey amounted to no more than 270 ships (including hemiolias), 4,000 horsemen, and 120,000 infantry. These troops were commanded by either 14 legates, as reported by Florus, or 25, according to Appian. The legates and their assigned areas of command included:
- Gellius (consul in 72 BC), in charge of the Tuscan Sea;
- Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus in the upper Adriatic Sea, in whose employ may have been Pompey's young sons (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Sextus Pompey) and not, as Florus would have it, the latter placed to guard the Egyptian Sea;
- Plotius Varus on the Sea of Sicily;
- Atilius in the Ligurian Sea (according to Florus) or the Sardinian-Corsica Sea (according to Appian);
- Pomponius in Gallia Narbonensis;
- Torquatus in the Balearic Sea;
- Tiberius Nero in the Strait of Gades;
- Lentulus Marcellinus on the Libyan-African Sea;
- Terentius Varro on the lower Adriatic to Acarnania;
- Lucius Sisenna on the Peloponnese, Attica, Euboea, Thessaly, Macedonia and Boeotia;
- Lucius Lollius on the upper Aegean and its islands to the Hellespont;
- Publius Piso over Pontus Euxinus in the seas of Thrace and Bithynia, north of the Propontis;
- Metellus over the eastern Aegean, southern Ionia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cyprus, and Phoenicia;
- Cepion over the Asiatic Sea;
- Cato the Younger was to close the Propontis passages.
Pirates
Plutarch reports that by the end of the First Mithridatic War, pirate ships had increased to over 1,000 and had sacked or occupied at least 400 cities. Below is how Appian describes them: