The Mir Muhammad Rebellion was a Kurdish uprising led by Mir Muhammad of Rawanduz between 1830 and 1838 against the Ottoman Empire. Mir Muhammad, seeking autonomy and inspired by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, launched a campaign to unify Kurdish tribes and expand his influence in Upper Mesopotamia. The rebellion coincided with the weakening of Ottoman central authority, allowing him to challenge imperial rule until the Ottomans suppressed the uprising in 1835–1838. Following his surrender, the Soran Emirate was dissolved, and Kurdish regions were reincorporated into the Ottoman administrative structure.
Background
Mir Muhammad of Rawanduz, emir of the Soran Emirate, emerged as a dominant regional figure in the early 1830s. Inspired by the example of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, he aimed to establish a semi-independent Kurdish state within the Ottoman Empire. He forcefully subdued neighboring Kurdish tribes and positioned himself as a significant local ruler. This period saw increasing political awareness among Kurdish notables, coupled with a growing desire for autonomy.
Taking advantage of declining imperial control, Mir Muhammad expanded his influence into Sulaymaniyah, Erbil, and Mosul. During this campaign, he briefly allied with Bedir Khan Beg of Cizre, attempting to unite Kurdish leaders in opposition to the Ottomans.
According to archival Ottoman sources, Mir Muhammad's territorial control included, beyond the Soran region itself, large portions of the Shahrizor region, including Koy Sanjaq, Harir, Köprü, and parts of Erbil. To the north, his domain extended into Cizre and parts of Bohtan, and by 1835 it also encompassed sections of the Bahdinan and Baban Kurdish principalities.
In 1832-1833, the Ottoman Empire faced simultaneous threats, including the Wahhabi uprising in Arabia and the revolt of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, whose influence extended into Syria and Anatolia. During this turbulent period, the Governor of Baghdad launched a major military campaign against Mir Muhammad, Emir of Soran, whose influence was steadily growing. In 1248 AH (1832-33), the governor marched with a large force in an attempt to suppress him.
However, the campaign failed. Several factors contributed to this failure, including Mir Muhammad's strong relations with Iran and his occupation of parts of the Baban region. The Governor of Baghdad was unable to subdue him and ultimately achieved no decisive result.
Faced with growing difficulties on multiple fronts, the Ottoman central administration opted to avoid further military escalation. Instead, it turned to diplomacy. In an effort to secure Mir Muhammad's loyalty and bring him nominally under imperial control, the Ottoman government granted him the honorary title of "Pasha." A peace agreement was reached, and Ottoman troops withdrew from the region.
In the aftermath, Mir Muhammad emerged even stronger, consolidating his position and expanding his authority by seizing control of the Amadiya district.
Rebellion and Ottoman Response
Having breathed a sigh of relief with the Treaty of Kütahya in May 1833, the Ottoman Empire decided to launch a campaign in Kurdistan to suppress the Mir Muhammad rebellion and put an end to the autonomous Kurdish principalities.
In November 1832, at the Battle of Konya, Grand Vizier Reşid Mehmed Pasha was defeated and captured by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, the son of the Egyptian governor Muhammad Ali of Egypt. He was released two months later at Kütahya but was subsequently dismissed from the grand vizierate. In 1834 he was appointed governor of Sivas and tasked with suppressing the rebellion of the Soran ruler Mir Muhammad and bringing the Kurdish principalities in the region under Ottoman authority.
Another development that facilitated Ottoman action against Mir Muhammad was the changing regional situation in the Baban area. The region, which had previously been occupied by Iranian forces due to earlier disputes between the Baban rulers and the Ottomans, was eventually evacuated by Iran. With the withdrawal of Iranian officials from Sulaymaniyah and the end of effective Iranian presence in Ottoman Kurdistan, it became clear that Iran would not provide assistance to the Soran emir. This development significantly strengthened the Ottoman position and removed an important potential source of support for Mir Muhammad.
By early 1835, the Ottoman authorities had begun preparations for a military campaign against the Soran Emirate. In response, Mir Muhammad concentrated his forces near Mosul. According to Ottoman archival reports, in February 1835 he positioned approximately 10,000 soldiers in the district of Navgir, located about four hours from Mosul, in anticipation of an Ottoman advance.
Mir Muhammad's expansion into neighboring territories also alarmed several local Kurdish elites. Notables from Amadiya sent a petition to the Sivas governor Reşid Mehmed Pasha, declaring their loyalty to the Ottoman Sultan and complaining about what they described as the oppression of Mir Muhammad. The petition bore the seals of thirty-three prominent figures, including tribal leaders, aghas, and religious authorities from Amadiya, Zakho, and Akre.
In response, Reşid Mehmed Pasha wrote a letter dated 31 March 1835 to the Amadiya notables.
“Siz mademki Devlet-i Aliye kulluğunu iltizam etmişsiniz, malum olduğu üzere, bizim ve âlemlerin velinimeti olan padişahımız efendimiz hazretlerinin Memalik-i Mahruse-i İslamiyye’de (Osmanlı İslam ülkesinde) zulüm ve düşmanlığa asla rızası yoktur. Bu surette sizlerin dahi bu şekilde uğramış olduğunuz zulüm ve düşmanlığa Zat-ı Şahanelerinin rızası yoktur. Her şekilde muhafazanızın icra olunacağı açıktır.
Amidiye Sancağı Bağdat Eyaleti dahilinde olup, Bağdat Valisi hazretlerinin dahi o bölgenin Valisi olarak bu şekil zulüm ve yoldan çıkmaya asla rıza göstermeyecekleri aşikardır.
Şu anda Saltanat-ı Seniyye tarafından Bağdat tarafına hayli Asakir-i Muntazama-i Muhammediye memur edilip gönderilmiştir. Bu askerlerin gönderilmesi Revanduz Beyi gibi hainlerin tedip ve terbiyeleri ile cümle ahali ve fukaranın emniyet ve istirahatları hususundan ibarettir.
Mesele, Bağdat Valisi tarafına yazılmış, Saltanat-ı Seniyye’ye dahi arz ve inha kılınmıştır. Bağdat Valisi hazretlerine yazılan tahriratımız tarafınıza gönderilmiş olup, elinize geçtiğinde tahriratımızı alıp içinizden ileri gelenlerden dört beş kişi kalkıp doğru Bağdat’a giderek, Vali hazretlerine yazıları ibraz ediniz.
Halinizi ifade ettiğiniz surette haklarınızda her şekilde müsaade ve uğramış olduğunuz düşmanlık ve hasardan sizi muhafaza buyuracakları aşikardır.”
English Translation:
“Since you have declared yourselves servants of the Ottoman State, it is well known that our sovereign, the Sultan our benefactor and the benefactor of all does not in any way tolerate oppression or hostility within the protected domains of Islam (the Ottoman lands). Therefore, the oppression and hostility that you state you have suffered cannot have the approval of His Imperial Majesty. It is evident that your protection will be ensured in every respect.
The district of Amadiya is included within the Baghdad province, and it is equally clear that the Governor of Baghdad, as the governor responsible for that region, will never tolerate such oppression or misconduct.
At present, a considerable number of regular Ottoman troops have been dispatched by the imperial government to the Baghdad region. The purpose of sending these troops is to discipline and punish rebels such as the Bey of Rawanduz and to ensure the security and well-being of the general population and the poor.
The matter has been written to the Governor of Baghdad and has also been reported to the imperial government. The correspondence addressed to the Governor of Baghdad has been sent to you as well. When it reaches you, take this document and send four or five of your leading men to Baghdad to present the letters to the governor.
Once you present your situation in this manner, it is evident that permission will be granted in your favor and that you will be protected from the hostility and harm you have suffered.”
Reşid Mehmed Pasha concluded his letter by stating that those who remained loyal to the Ottoman state would be rewarded, and he directed the Amadiya notables to bring their complaints before the governor of Baghdad.
Mir Muhammad's expansion did not only alarm the elites of Amadiya. After the territories of Cizre and Bohtan had largely come under the authority of Seyfeddin Bey, the rulers of nearby districts such as Şirvan and Garzan also became concerned that Mir Muhammad's campaigns might threaten their own domains.
Unable to stop the advance of the Rawanduz emir directly, Ottoman authorities attempted to strengthen relations with regional leaders in order to limit the further spread of his influence. In this context, the ruler of Şirvan, Said Bey, sent a letter in Arabic to Reşid Mehmed Pasha, stating that Mir Muhammad had occupied Cizre but that the local rulers had not submitted to him and had remained in their positions.
The Rawanduz affair also created tensions between the Ottoman provincial authorities. The governors of Sivas and Baghdad both became involved in the question of how to deal with Mir Muhammad. The governor of Baghdad argued that the problem could be resolved under his authority and expressed discomfort with the intervention of the Sivas governor.
The situation was complicated by the fact that Mir Muhammad's campaigns extended into territories belonging to both administrations. While regions such as Soran, Baban and Behdinan were considered part of the Baghdad province, districts including Cizre, Bohtan, Garzan and Şirvan fell under the jurisdiction of the Sivas governorship. As a result, correspondence from both provinces was brought before the imperial council (Meclis-i Şura) for discussion.
Ultimately, the opinion of the Baghdad governor prevailed. Responsibility for the campaign was entrusted to the governor of Mosul, Mehmed Pasha, and the forces assembled under Reşid Mehmed Pasha were ordered to proceed to Mosul before advancing against the Rawanduz emir.
In the spring of 1835, while the governor of Baghdad was unable to organize a direct campaign against the Soran emir, the governor of Sivas, Reşid Mehmed Pasha, advanced into the Garzan region, an area largely inhabited by Yazidi Kurds.
In July 1835, Mir Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz continued his efforts to expand his influence by encouraging tribal uprisings in the regions of Mardin, Cizre, and Bohtan. It is reported that the tribes of Mardin appealed to Rawanduz for assistance against Reşid Mehmed Pasha, prompting Reşid Pasha to march into the region and suppress the uprising after heavy clashes, during which 200 rebels were reportedly killed.
Following the Ottoman advance, Rawanduzi was forced to withdraw some of his supporters from the area; however, he soon succeeded in causing instability once again in Cizre and Bohtan, where he maintained strong tribal connections and was capable of gathering between 8,000 and 10,000 fighters. Troops were also dispatched to Siirt and Şirvan in support of allied groups.
The continued uprisings organized by tribes and beys aligned with Rawanduz alarmed the Ottoman authorities, and preparations began toward the end of 1835 for a larger campaign against Mir Muhammad. According to the planned operation, Cizre would first be secured in order to protect the Diyarbakır region and prevent further incursions from Rawanduz, thereby ensuring the security of the Diyarbakır Eyalet and blocking any advance by Rawanduzlu from Cizre into Anatolia.
Meanwhile, upon learning of Reşid Pasha’s military preparations, Mir Muhammad attempted to further destabilize the region. Tribal forces supported by approximately 7,000 men carried out a night raid on villages near Midyat, during which the mutasallim of Midyat was lured into a trap. Between fifty and sixty of his men were killed, while he himself was wounded in three places and narrowly escaped.
A letter dated 12 August 1835 from the chiefs of the Omeriyan tribe in Mardin to the Rawanduz emir reported that Reşid Pasha had taken control of the Garzan region and the area known as Yazidkhan, had reached an agreement with tribes in the Diyarbakır region, and had gathered a considerable number of troops before arriving in Diyarbakır. The letter also suggested that some tribes might change sides if the Ottoman commander advanced toward the Mardin area.
Reşid Mehmed Pasha provided the following information regarding the Garzan campaign in a report dated 1 November 1835: