The Mat Salleh Rebellion was a series of major armed disturbances against the British North Borneo Chartered Company administration in North Borneo, now the Malaysian state of Sabah. It was instigated by Datu Muhammad Salleh (also known as Mat Salleh), a local chief from the Lingkabo district and Sugut River. He led the rebellion between 1894 until his death in Tambunan in 1900. The rebellion then continued on for another five years until 1905.
His revolts were widely supported by the local communities and affected a large geographical area from Sandakan, across Gaya Island, including the interior, especially Tambunan. His most notable uprising occurred at midnight on 9 July 1897, when he led his followers to successfully attack a major colonial settlement on Gaya Island.
Biography of Mat Salleh
Mat Salleh was born in Inanam, Jesselton (present-day Kota Kinabalu). His father was Datu Balu, a traditional leader in Inanam and a Suluk or Tausug. His mother was of Bajau descent. He had three siblings: Ali, Badin and Bolong. The family moved to Sugut, which unlike Inanam, was in the North Borneo Chartered Company's concession but since the abandonment of its tobacco estates, it had reportedly been "left largely to its own devices", and enjoyed relative autonomy. There, Datu Bulu assumed a local leadership position along part of the Sugut River on the eastern coast of North Borneo.
Later in his life, Mat Salleh married a Sulu princess named Dayang Bandang. She was related to the Sultan of Sulu's family and her village was at Penggalaban, Paitan. He later inherited his father's local leadership position as the village chieftain in the Lingkabau district and Sungei Sugut.
Mat Salleh was often physically described as slender and tall, with pockmarked features. He was also well known as a mysterious and intelligent man, with a commanding personality and presence. He was well-respected and his great tactical skills were renowned among the local communities.
Salleh's supporters
His mixed parentage and role as a traditional local leader which he had inherited from his father contributed to his significant Bajau and Suluk following. Also, his marriage to Dayang Bandang, who was related to the ruling family in Sulu helped him win more supporters.
However, his wide support not only came from his family affiliations and connections. He was also able to garner supporters from Dusun communities spread over a sizeable area in North Borneo and had the Tagahas communities as allies, among others. He was skilled at connecting with and uniting other communities, making him a great personage among the multi-ethnic indigenous people. For example, some accounts claim that he used and married various symbols of authority and mysticism that the different communities could relate with to attest to his leadership position and military prowess.
The large areas where his support came from proved instrumental in ensuring the initial success of his revolt as these areas were available to provide power bases, supplies and construction of forts. This also implied that he and his army had ample mobility between forts and bases, which explains their repeated evasion of the company's troops. From 1895 to 1897, he had at his disposal at least six forts which were well-prepared with resources and manpower that he could mobilise at short notice.
The forts that his followers built were reportedly well designed and constructed.
"most extraordinary place and without the guns [the company's seven pounders] would have been absolutely impregnable. The buildings covered three sides of a square, the fourth side being closed by a stone wall. The whole square was 22 yards by 20 and the fact that over 200 shell burst inside will give some idea of its strength, the enemy still remaining in possession. The walls of the building were of stone, 8 feet thick with numerous large bamboos built into them for loopholes. The whole fort was surrounded with three bamboo fences... and the ground between was simply covered with 'sudah' (bamboo spikes)... on the inside of the square the loopholes were also very cunningly arranged to repel internal attack. There was neither exit nor entrance to the buildings and had an attacking force, no matter how strong, succeeded in reaching the middle of the square they would have been no nearer capturing the place than if they had stayed away, and they would have been shot down ... without the possibility of returning fire."
North Borneo Chartered Company
Changes imposed
Before the arrival of the British North Borneo Chartered Company, central authority in North Borneo was weak. Part of it was governed by Brunei and part by Sulu. This gave local chiefs and traditional elites relative autonomy to practice influence and power to regulate trade in the area and serve the responsibility of protecting the local inhabitants from excessive exploitation by foreign traders.
The British arrived during the late 19th century, and their administration (under the London-based North Borneo Chartered Company) in North Borneo lasted sixty years, between 1881 and 1941. It aimed to transform North Borneo into a producer of various agricultural products, predominantly tobacco. Apart from the introduction of cash-crop farming, the company also imposed new taxation laws and set up administrative centres. Some of the changes brought about by them were:
- Introduction of new taxes, including a levy on rice, the staple food of the population.
- Poll-tax and passes for boats on local communities, including members of the local elites and traditional leaders.
- Mandatory licenses for local boat owners.
- Passed a Village Ordinance, resulting in the company not sanctioning the authority and traditional social position of a large number of traditional elites and local chiefs. This consequently alienated them and undermined their roles and social statuses.
- A customs station was built on Jambongan Island, staffed by a non-European clerk and policeman.
- A new police station was established on the Kinarom.
In its attempt to revitalise the sagging economy, then managing director of the North Borneo Chartered Company, William C. Cowie also launched two major projects:
- The construction of a cross-country rail between Brunei Bay and Cowie Harbour
- A telegraphic line from Labuan to Sandakan
New levies were imposed to finance these large-scale projects. Lack of manpower, however, caused the company to rely on local chieftains as agents for revenue collection. Among those who cooperated with the company, some abused their authority and overtaxed the natives, exacerbating dissatisfaction among local people already burdened by other new laws imposed by the company. Mat Salleh viewed the company's new rules as an infringement of native rights, refused to acknowledge the company's authority, and continued to collect taxes from traders traveling via the Sugut River as he had before the rules were imposed, without turning them over to the company. Numerous other local chiefs shared Mat Salleh's opinions on the company's new rules. Many of them later joined his cause.
Administrative centre relocated from Gaya Island to the mainland
The company had set up its initial administrative centres on the west coast of North Borneo in Papar and Tempassuk. In between these areas was the Gaya station, set up in September 1882 as a collection station for jungle and local produce. This station also served as a "stopping place" for European officials plying between Kudat and Labuan. Gaya Island was initially thought of as a highly prospective settlement site and a possible port of call. It however, did not flourish as expected; trade, collection of local produce and other economic activities did not prosper. After the station in Gaya was raided and torched by Mat Salleh and his followers in July 1897, the British relocated to the mainland, in Gantian.
Mat Salleh uprisings, 1895–1905
At any rate, you will admit that your company cannot prevent us from dying for what we think are our rights.
— Mat Salleh, to William C. Cowie, the managing director of the British North Borneo Company who had come from London on a special mission to arrange peace talks with him in 1898
1894
Mat Salleh first came to the company's attention when he was suspected of involvement in the murder and robbery of two Iban traders on the Sugut River in 1894. Captain Barnett and a few other colonial officials were sent to Mat Salleh's residence to investigate the matter. Mat Salleh denied his and his followers' involvement in it and resisted arrest. This incident marked the first of many misunderstandings, creating a tense and hostile situation between both parties.
Sandakan incident (1895)
In August 1895, in an attempt to have their grievances addressed through the colonial institution, Mat Salleh, his followers and traditional chiefs from Sugut went to Sandakan, then the seat of the government of North Borneo, to present a petition against the collection of poll-tax and the imposition of passes on boats by government chiefs to governor L. P. Beaufort and his representatives. However, L. P. Beaufort and his representatives were away on another expedition. Treasurer-in-general Alexander Cook, who was aware of their visit instead denied them an audience. After two days of waiting, Mat Salleh and his party left.
Following this, a complaint against Mat Salleh and his party was forwarded to the governor and other colonial officials by Cook. In response, on 29 August 1895, representatives from the company arrived at Mat Salleh's home in Jambongan to arrest him and four of his followers on the grounds of disturbing the peace at Sandakan and involvement with the murders of the two Ibans in 1894. Mat Salleh refused to comply and escaped. This led to his house and village being attacked, burned and looted. The company then declared him a wanted man. A reward of 500 Straits dollar was offered for his capture.
This incident triggered him to wage war against the North Borneo Chartered Company. He then consolidated his position at Lingkabau, approximately 80 kilometres (50 miles) up the Sugut River and with strong support from the native Dusun community there, built a strong fort. The British subsequently attacked it but failed to capture him. Instead, they destroyed it and captured about 60 Dusun as prisoners of war.
After this, he re-established himself in Labuk and built his headquarters at Limbawan. He had received support from the Labuk people as well. In September 1896, the British made another attack, surrounding Limbawan and cutting off possible escape routes. Again, they failed to apprehend him, although they managed to capture and demolish the fort. Following their escape, Mat Salleh and his followers built another fort at Padang at Ulu Sugut.
1897 (Gaya attack)
At midnight on 9 July 1897, Mat Salleh successfully led his followers to attack the company's settlement on Gaya Island. They raided and torched the Gaya compound before escaping with loot estimated to be worth 100,000 Straits dollars. They also took the treasury clerk F. S. Neubronner, hostage. The success of this attack increased his reputation as a local hero. This helped to further widen his reach, influence and support. After this attack, the company's managing director, Cowie and the governor, L. P. Beaufort, visited the Sultan of Brunei seeking compensation, claiming that some of the attackers were from regions under his jurisdiction. These areas were also claimed to have had been used as bases by Mat Salleh. The negotiations brought the Mengkabong, Manggatal and Api-Api districts (opposite Gaya Island) under the company's administration.
After the successful attack on Gaya Island, Mat Salleh and his followers moved on to a fort on the Soan on the Labuk, then Parachangan on the Sugut, then proceeded to attack and burn down the government residency at Ambong in November 1897.
Following this, he established his next fort at Ranau. On 13 December 1897, the company attacked this fort. They were defeated and lost about 10 men, including an Officer Jones, who had led the attack. On 9 January 1898, they attacked the fort for a second time with a larger force and captured it. However, by then, Mat Salleh and his men had already abandoned the fort and established a new one in the interior of Tambunan.
The Tambunan fort was stronger and more stable than his previous fort. It was reported to have been: