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The Uyunid Emirate (Arabic: الدَّوْلَةُ الْعُيُونِيَّة) was a historical Arab emirate centered in al-Hasa that ruled over most of eastern Arabia and Najd. The Uyunid dynasty, which belonged to the Banu Abd al-Qays tribe, ruled the emirate from 1076 until its power was weakened by the Salghurid invasion of 1235. The dynasty was ultimately displaced by the Usfurids, who seized control of Eastern Arabia in 1253. The emirate was established after the Uyunids took control from the Qarmatians.
The Qarmatians began to weaken after the death of their military leader Al-Hasan al-A'sam in 977 (367 AH). The intervention of the Abbasids and the Fatimids in internal affairs led to the disintegration of the Qarmatian state. This weakness encouraged many Arab tribes to revolt against Qarmatian influence in Oman, southern Iraq, and Bahrain. These local tribal rebellions motivated some tribal chiefs, most notably Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni, to establish their own states in Al-Ahsa.
On the other side of Al-Ahsa, the Islamic East was in political disarray, particularly after the Buyids seized power in Baghdad from the Abbasids. However, this situation quickly changed with the emergence of the Seljuks on the eastern stage. Their influence extended to Transoxiana, Khorasan, Tabaristan, and Gorgan. The Buyids' control over Baghdad led to the Seljuk Sultan Tughril Beg entering Baghdad in 1055 (447 AH) and overthrowing the Buyids.
Local tribes had attempted to overthrow Qarmatian rule before the rise of Abdullah ibn Ali Al Uyuni. These tribes received military assistance from the Seljuks in Baghdad. Among them were the Banu al-Zajjaj, who, led by Abu al-Bahlul al-Awwam, established an emirate loyal to the Abbasid Caliphate on Awal Island. Al-Awwam had requested permission from the Qarmatians to build a mosque in Awal for 3,000 dinars. The Qarmatians agreed, but on the first Friday after its completion, Al-Awwam and his brother Muslim declared their rebellion and renounced allegiance to the Qarmatians. Not far from Awal, the Banu Ayash emerged in Qatif under the leadership of Yahya ibn Ayash. Yahya aspired to control all of Al-Ahsa and began planning to annex Awal, but he died before achieving his goal. He entrusted this task to his son Zakariya, who indeed succeeded in killing Al-Awwam, defeating his army, and incorporating Awal into his emirate. After the fall of Qarmatian influence in Awal and Qatif, only the city of Al-Ahsa remained, where they fortified themselves until their eventual downfall.
Abdullah ibn Ali Al Uyuni appeared in Al-Ahsa amidst the deteriorating conditions of the region and sought to rid it of the Qarmatians, having witnessed their weakened state. Abdullah relied entirely on his family and cousins from the Banu Abd al-Qays tribe, numbering approximately four hundred men. With this force, he began fighting the Qarmatians, gaining the support of the local population who resented Qarmatian rule. Abdullah laid siege to Al-Ahsa, a siege that lasted for nearly seven years. Despite financial aid from the Uyunid family, Abdullah found it difficult to eliminate Qarmatian influence, especially since opposing tribes did not join his military campaigns. Thus, Abdullah had no choice but to seek external assistance. In 1073 (465 AH) , he appealed to the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, considering them a party harmed by Qarmatian attacks. The Abbasids and the de facto Seljuk Turkish rulers harbored animosity towards the Qarmatians, particularly the Seljuk Sultan Malik-Shah, who was known for his dislike of Ismaili Shi'ites. The Abbasid Caliphate saw Abdullah al-Uyuni's offer as a significant opportunity to restore Al-Ahsa to Abbasid rule.
In response to Abdullah al-Uyuni's request, the Seljuk Sultan dispatched a force of seven thousand men under the command of Artuk Bey in 1076 (469 AH). Aksuk Salar's army marched from Iraq to Al-Ahsa. En route to meet Abdullah al-Uyuni, they occupied Qatif and expelled its ruler, Ibn Ayash, to Awal Island. They then proceeded to Al-Ahsa and joined Abdullah al-Uyuni's army in besieging the Qarmatians. During the siege of Al-Ahsa, Artuk Bey and his soldiers plundered the surrounding farms, attacked local tribes, and seized their wealth, aiming to weaken the Qarmatians economically. The Qarmatians sought a month-long truce from Artuk Bey in exchange for money, offering thirteen men as hostages. Artuk Bey accepted, and the Qarmatians went out to gather food and supplies from their hidden caches. After collecting enough provisions, they returned to Al-Ahsa and renounced the truce with the Seljuk commander and his ally Abdullah al-Uyuni. Abdullah and the Seljuks then resumed a prolonged siege, during which the hostages were killed. With the onset of summer, which the Seljuks could not endure, Artuk Bey and his army withdrew from Al-Ahsa, leaving his brother, Al-Baqqush, with a small force to assist Abdullah al-Uyuni.
In their deteriorating situation, the Qarmatians decided to seek assistance from the Banu Amir of Rabiah to confront Abdullah al-Uyuni and his Seljuk ally Al-Baqqush. The Banu Amir appeared in a very large number compared to the Uyunid and Seljuk forces, with an estimated thirty thousand soldiers against six hundred. Despite this, Abdullah al-Uyuni, with Seljuk aid, managed to defeat the Qarmatians and Banu Amir in the Battle of al-Rahlin in 1076 (469 AH). He entered the Qarmatian palace in Al-Ahsa, announcing the fall of the Qarmatian state and the establishment of his own state in the Al-Ahsa region. Abdullah al-Uyuni prevented the Seljuks from entering the Qarmatian palace, fearing their interference in governance and their appropriation of the palace's wealth, which was supposed to belong to the Abbasid state. He sought to solidify his state's foundations and, to do so, needed to eliminate the Seljuks and Qarmatian supporters who posed a threat to his rule.
The Banu Amir fought Abdullah al-Uyuni after he refused their demand for the tributes they had received from the Qarmatians in exchange for their support and cessation of hostilities. Al-Uyuni defeated then moved north to a site between Qasr al-Khandaq and Bab al-Asfar to confront the Qarmatians, who had rebelled against his rule. The two sides clashed in the Battle of Bab al-Asfar in 1077 (470 AH), and Al-Uyuni emerged victorious, capturing a large number of them and expelling the rest to Oman due to their frequent treachery and broken covenants. The relationship between Abdullah al-Uyuni and the Seljuk commander in Al-Ahsa, Al-Baqqush, worsened due to Al-Baqqush's ambition to increase Seljuk influence in Al-Ahsa and Abdullah al-Uyuni's adoption of the Fatimid doctrine to spread his Alawite call. This led to escalating problems between the two commanders, culminating in Abdullah al-Uyuni killing Al-Baqqush. The Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Sultanate quickly prepared an army led by Rukn al-Din upon hearing of Al-Baqqush's death. Rukn al-Din's army reached Al-Ahsa and besieged it for approximately a year until the Seljuk soldiers grew weary. Abdullah al-Uyuni then confronted and defeated them, forcing their retreat from Al-Ahsa.
The internal situation of the Banu Ayash in Qatif and Awal was unstable due to the animosity between Al-Hasan ibn Yahya Al Ayash, the ruler of Awal, and his brother Zakariya, the ruler of Qatif. Zakariya aspired to overthrow his brother's rule in Awal and then advance to Al-Ahsa to incorporate it into his domain. He resented his brother Al-Hasan's attempts to strengthen ties with the Uyunids and, on the advice of his vizier Al-Akroot, plotted to kill his brother. Zakariya indeed killed his brother, expanding his influence in Awal. He then prepared an army to march on Al-Ahsa, reaching a village called Nazira, where he began plundering its farms and surrounding villages. News of the plundering reached Abdullah al-Uyuni, who mobilized an army from his family and cousins from the Banu Abd al-Qays and marched towards Nazira. A battle ensued between the two parties, resulting in Zakariya's defeat and retreat to Qatif. Abdullah pursued Zakariya's forces to Qatif and managed to seize it. Zakariya then fled to Awal, so Abdullah dispatched an army and ships under the command of his son Al-Fadl to Awal Island. His army met Zakariya's army, and Al-Fadl was victorious, forcing Zakariya to flee to Uqair, where he encountered Abdullah ibn Ali's army. Abdullah managed to kill Zakariya in 1077 (470 AH), thereby unifying most of Al-Ahsa under his rule. He appointed his son Al-Fadl as emir of Qatif, and his son Ali over Awal Island, making Al-Ahsa the capital of the country.
Although Abdullah al-Uyuni unified Al-Ahsa under his banner, he faced external interference from the Seljuks. The Seljuk Sultan Malik-Shah had not forgotten Al-Baqqush's murder by Abdullah al-Uyuni and sought revenge and the overthrow of his rule. He ordered Hussain Omer, the ruler of Kerman, to prepare a military campaign against Al-Ahsa. Hussain carried out the order, heading to Al-Ahsa to bring it under Seljuk influence in 1081 CE (474 AH). Upon the Seljuk army's arrival, Abdullah al-Uyuni realized he could not confront such a large force with his smaller army. Therefore, he demonstrated his loyalty and submission to the Seljuk Sultanate and the Abbasid Caliphate to protect his and the Uyunids' possessions. Abdullah sought to eliminate Seljuk influence around Al-Ahsa and thus encouraged the Seljuk princes to invade Oman. The Seljuk princes were convinced, especially after Al-Uyuni's display of loyalty, allowing Al-Uyuni to secure his dominion from the Seljuks.
After the stabilization of conditions, Abdullah al-Uyuni began to organize administrative affairs. He appointed his sons over Qatif and Awal, and Sultan ibn Dawud over the northern areas between Basra and Al-Ahsa. These regional emirs did not possess absolute authority and reported back to Abdullah al-Uyuni. He also stabilized the country's economic situation, which led to secure trade routes for merchants and pilgrims, free from Bedouin attacks. Furthermore, he regulated religious affairs by removing Qarmatian beliefs, building mosques, and establishing religious schools with a Seljuk architectural style that adhered to Shi'ite principles. Abdullah successfully improved his relationship with the Abbasid Caliphate, to whom he pledged allegiance, and sermons in mosques were delivered in the name of the Abbasid Caliph. Consequently, both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Sultanate recognized Emir Abdullah al-Uyuni as the ruler of Al-Ahsa.
Al-Fadl ruled Al-Ahsa after his father, and there are many accounts regarding his reign. Some suggest he was only the ruler of Qatif and Awal during his father's time and did not rule the entire country, which is supported by historian Abdulrahman Al-Mudairees's opinion on the succession of Muhammad ibn al-Fadl. Others believe he ruled the entire country after his father's death, an opinion shared by researcher Abdulrahman Al-Mulla. The last opinion states that he was appointed ruler by his father when his father felt unable to manage affairs, an view supported by researcher Muhammad Mahmoud Khalil. Al-Fadl's rule was characterized by the protection of the land and the vulnerable, and he governed with firmness and strength. He revitalized the country's economic life by protecting merchants' goods from highway robbers, which encouraged people to engage in agriculture and trade.
It is also noted that Al-Fadl frequently moved within his lands, not settling in one place, and often resided in the desert north of the country. One day, Al-Fadl settled on Tarout Island and was assassinated there by one of his servants in 1126 (520 AH).
Text from the Wikipedia article “Uyunid Emirate”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.