The Raj of Sarawak, Kingdom of Sarawak, or State of Sarawak, was a kingdom founded in 1841 in northwestern Borneo and was in a treaty of protection with the United Kingdom from 1888. It was formed from a series of land concessions acquired by the Englishman James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Sarawak was recognised as a sovereign state by the United States in 1850, and by the United Kingdom in 1864.
Following recognition, Brooke expanded the Raj's territory at the expense of Brunei. Several major rebellions occurred against his rule, causing him to be plagued by debt incurred in countering the rebellions, and the sluggish economic situation at the time. His nephew, Charles Brooke, succeeded James and normalised the situation by improving the economy, reducing government debt and establishing public infrastructure. In 1888, the Raj acquired protected state status from the British Government whilst avoiding cession.
To promote economic growth, Charles Brooke encouraged the migration of Chinese workers from Qing China and British Singapore for agricultural work. With proper economic planning and stability, Sarawak prospered and emerged as one of the world's major producers of black pepper, in addition to oil and the introduction of rubber plantations. He was succeeded by his son, Charles Vyner Brooke, but World War II and the arrival of Imperial Japanese forces ultimately brought an end to the Raj, with the territory placed under British Military Administration upon the Japanese capitulation in 1945, and annexed by Britain as its last acquisition as a Crown Colony in 1946, contrary to the Atlantic Charter.
History
Foundation and early years
The Raj was founded by James Brooke, an English former soldier and adventurer who arrived at the banks of the Sarawak River and berthed his schooner there in 1839. After having served in the First Anglo-Burmese War, where he was severely wounded in battle, Brooke returned to England in 1825 to recover from his injury. Despite his attempts to return to service, he was unable to return to his station in India before his temporary leave from the service expired. Overstaying his furlough resulted in his position in the military being forfeited, but he was awarded a pension by the government for his service. He continued on from India and went to China to improve his health.
On his way to China in 1830, he saw the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago, still generally unknown to Europeans. He returned to England and made an abortive trading journey to China in the brig Findlay before his father died in 1835. Inspired by the adventure stories regarding the success of the East India Company (EIC) where his father had been serving, and especially by the efforts of Stamford Raffles to expand the company influence in the Asiatic Archipelago, he purchased a schooner named Royalist using the £30,000 left to him by his father. He recruited a crew for the schooner, training in the Mediterranean Sea in late 1836, before beginning their sail to the Far East on 27 October 1838. By July 1839, he reached Singapore and came across some British sailors who had been shipwrecked and helped by Pengiran Raja Muda Hashim, the uncle of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II of Brunei.
Brooke originally planned to sail to Marudu Bay in northwestern Borneo, but the British Governor-General in Singapore asked him to thank Raja Muda Hashim in southwestern Borneo. He sailed to the western coast of the island the following month, and on 14 August 1839 berthed his schooner on the banks of the Sarawak River and met Hashim to deliver the message. The Raja told Brooke that his presence in the area was to control a rebellion against the Sultanate of Brunei caused by the oppressive policies of Pengiran Indera Mahkota, a kinsman of the Sultan. Mahkota had earlier been dispatched by the Sultan to monopolise the antimony in the area; which as a result directly affected the income of the local Malays there amid growing frustration from the indigenous Land Dayak, who had been forced to work in the mines for about 10 years. It has also been alleged that the rebellion against Brunei was aided by the neighbouring Sultanate of Sambas and the government of the Dutch East Indies, who wanted to establish economic rights over the antimony. Due to these disturbances Brooke had limited access to explore the country, but he managed to explore up the Samarrahan River and spent some time at Rumah Jugah's longhouse at Lundu. On 2 October 1839 he returned to Singapore. Brooke then spent another six months cruising along the coasts of the Celebes Islands before returning to Sarawak on 29 August 1840.
Establishment
When he returned to Sarawak, the rebellion against Brunei's rule was still ongoing and Hashim asked Brooke to help. Brooke joined Mahkota's forces at Leda Tanah on 18 October 1840. By 20 December 1840 the rebels offered to surrender to Brooke provided they should not be put to death. Hashim initially refused to pardon them and wanted to execute them all, but was convinced by Brooke to forgive them, as Brooke had taken the major part in their suppression. "Hassim agreed to spare the insurgents’ lives and took the wives and children of the insurgency's leaders as hostages. Of the leaders themselves, Datu Patinggi Abdul Gapur and Datu Tumanggong Mersal withdrew to the protection of Sambas, while Datu Patinggi Ali found refuge among the Malays at Sarikei."
In exchange for Brooke's support, Muda Hashim had promised Brooke the country of Siniawan and Sarawak, and its government and trade. On 14 February 1841, Brooke received papers declaring him "resident at Sarawak," which granted him the permission to live in the province, and "to seek profit by trade". Brooke left the next day in the Royalist for Singapore, only to return to Sarawak in May 1841 with a second boat: the Swift, filled with British manufactured goods to trade with Muda Hashim. Brooke was disappointed upon his return that the house Hashim had promised to build for him was not ready, and the antimony he wanted in trade for the manufactured goods had not yet been worked. Furthermore, Hashim began questioning giving the territory to Brooke, which was fanned by Mahkota, who had been deprived of his power in the area in favour of Brooke. This led Hashim to constantly delay the recognition of concession which frustrated Brooke. "Brooke’s estrangement from Hassim provided the Sarawak Malay datus with opportunities to re-establish their positions. They sent a delegation to Brooke led by Datu Tumanggong Mersal and Datu Patinggi Ali’s son, "to request him to become their Rajah, offering to support him by force of arms." On 23 September 1841, Brooke, with the Royalist fully armed, went ashore to Hashim's audience chamber and called on him to negotiate. With little choice, and putting the blame mainly on Mahkota, Hashim granted Sarawak to Brooke on 24 September 1841. Brooke issued new laws for the territory banning slavery, headhunting and piracy; and by July 1842, his appointment was confirmed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II.
From 1843, Brooke actively suppressed piracy on the coasts of western and northern Borneo together with Captain Henry Keppel in HMS Dido. After talks with Serib Sahib, who controlled the Sadong River, Keppel and Brooke's native forces attacked three rivers in the Saribas; the Padi, Paku and Rimbas. After which, Keppel was called away on orders, but returned in August 1844 along with EIC steamer Phlegethon. By this time Serib Sahib had abandoned the Sadong and retreated to Patusan. Keppel and Brooke's native forces once again overwhelmed all opposition in Patusan and the Undop, but were ambushed by the Sea Dayak on the river Skrang at Karangan Peris, resulting in the death of Datu Patinggi Ali. Shortly after this punitive expedition Brooke heard that Mahkota, the former administrator of the Kuching area, had taken shelter at the Lingga, and managed to capture him and send him back to Brunei.
Relationship to Brunei
To prevent any further dispute with Brunei, Brooke hoped to reform the sultanate's administration and establish a pro-British government through Hashim and his brother Pengiran Badruddin. In October 1844, Brooke and Captain Sir Edward Belcher returned the two brothers to Brunei in HMS Samarang and the EIC steamer Phlegethon. The vessels anchored at the Sultan's audience chamber, demanding Pengiran Yusof's position as Bendahara be replaced by Hashim and asking the Sultan to pledge to suppress piracy in his dominions and to transfer ownership of the island of Labuan to the British (although the British government had not asked for this). The status of Brooke as a Rajah and consul for the British at the time was also controversial as he was not recognised by the British government to represent British subjects. Indirectly, Brooke had become involved in an internal dynastic dispute of Brunei.
In August 1845, Rear-Admiral Thomas Cochrane arrived at Brunei with a squadron of six to eight ships to release two Lascar seamen who were believed to be hidden there. Badruddin accused Yusof of being involved in the slave trade due to his close relations with a notable pirate leader, Sharif Usman, in Marudu Bay and the Sultanate of Sulu. Denying the allegation, Yusof refused to meet with Cochrane and escaped after Cochrane threatened him with force before regaining his own force in Brunei's capital. Cochrane sailed to Marudu Bay in pursuit of Usman while Badruddin defeated Yusof. Hashim established a rightful position in Brunei Town to become the next sultan after defeating the pirates led by Yusof, who fled to Kimanis in northern Borneo, where he was executed. Yusof was the Sultan's favourite noble, and Hashim's victory reduced the Sultan's son's chances of becoming the next leader. After his capture in Sarawak in 1844, Mahkota became the Sultan's adviser in Yusof's absence. He prevailed on the Sultan to order the execution of Hashim, whose presence had become unwelcome to the royal family, especially due to his close ties with Brooke that were favourable to English policy. An adventurer named Haji Saman, who was connected to Yusof, also played upon the Sultan's fear that Hashim would take his throne.
By the Sultan's order, Hashim, Badruddin, and their family were assassinated in 1846. One of Badruddin's slaves, Japar, survived the attack and intercepted HMS Hazard, which brought him to Sarawak to inform Brooke. Enraged by the news, Brooke organised an expedition to avenge Hashim's death with the aid of Cochrane from the Royal Navy with Phlegethon. On 6 July 1846, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II complained in a letter about the discourtesy of HMS Hazard and invited Cochrane to ascend the capital of Brunei with two boats.
On 8 July, HEICS Phlegethon, HMS Spiteful and HMS Royalist moved upriver, where they were fired on from every position with slight damage. Mahkota and the Sultan retreated upriver while most of the population fled upon their arrival at Brunei's capital, leaving the brother of the Sultan's son, Pengiran Muhammad, who was badly wounded, and Pengiran Mumin, an opponent of the Sultan's son who despised his royal family's decision to be involved in conflict with the British. The British destroyed the town forts and invited the population to return with no harm to be done to them while the Sultan hid in the jungle. Another expedition was sent to the interior but failed to find the Sultan. Brooke remained in Brunei with Captain Rodney Mundy and HMS Iris along with the Phlegethon and HMS Hazard while the main expedition continued their mission to suppress piracy in northern Borneo.
Upon finding that Haji Saman was living in Membakut and involved in the plotting that caused Hashim's death, HEICS Phlegethon and HMS Iris sailed there, destroyed Haji Saman's house, and captured Membakut, though Saman escaped. Brooke returned again to Brunei and finally persuaded the Sultan to return to the capital, where he wrote a letter of apology to Queen Victoria for the killings of Hashim, his brother and their family. Through his confession, the Sultan recognised Brooke's authority over Sarawak and mining rights throughout the territory without requiring him to pay any tribute, and granted the island of Labuan to the British. Brooke departed Brunei and left Mumin and Mundy in charge to keep the Sultan in line until the British government made a final decision to acquire the island. Following the ratification agreement of the transfer of Labuan to the British, the Sultan agreed to allow British forces to suppress all piracy along the coast of Borneo.
Later years
In 1847, acting as HM Commissioner and British Consul to the Sultan and Independent Chiefs of Borneo, Brooke negotiated the Treaty of Friendship and Commerce. One of its articles prevented the sultanate from engaging in any concession treaty with other foreign powers, especially after the visit of USS Constitution in 1845. But the United States at the time had no intention to establish any solid presence in Asia and the Pacific. By 1850, the US recognised Brooke's raj as an independent state. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II died in 1852 and was succeeded by Mumin, a success in Brooke's efforts to establish a pro-British government in Brunei. In 1852, the new Sultan ceded the Saribas and Skrang districts, which later became the Second Division, to Brooke due to conflict with pirates.