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The Pāla Empire was an early medieval Indian empire ruled by the Pāla (Prakrit and Sanskrit: पाल, romanized: Pāla, lit. 'protector') dynasty. The empire was founded with the election of Gopāla by the chiefs of Gauda in the late 8th century CE. The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of Gauḍa, Vikramapura, Pāṭaliputra, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramavati (Varendra), Tāmralipta and Jagaddala.
The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal. At its zenith under emperors Dharmapala and Devapala in the early ninth century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in northern India, with its territory stretching across the Gangetic Plain down to the Vindhya Range and may have extended to Goalpara in Assam. Dharmapala also exerted influence through the Buddhist scholar Atis Dipankar in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. He was referred to as uttarapathaswami. After a brief period of decline, emperor Mahipala successfully defended his domains in Bengal and Bihar against the south Indian Chola invasions. Ramapala was the last strong Pala emperor who held control of Kamarupa and Kalinga. The empire became considerably weakened with their heavy dependence on Samantas being exposed after 11th-century Varendra rebellion, which led to the rise of resurgent Hindu Senas as sovereign power in the 12th century and expulsion of the Palas from Bengal, marking the end of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent.
The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The Charyapada in Apabhraṣṭas was written by Buddhist Mahasiddhas of tantric tradition, which laid the basis of several eastern Indian languages in their rule. Palas built grand Buddhist temples and monasteries (Viharas), including the Somapura Mahavihara and Odantapuri, and patronised the great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Pala empire maintained relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first arrived in Bengal during this period as a result of flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts with the West Asia (i.e., Middle East). The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.
The origin and early history of the Palas is uncertain, with historians relying on indirect evidence regarding their ancestry.
The 11th-century Sanskrit epic Ramacharitam, written by a Pala court poet, states that Varendra (North Bengal) was the fatherland (Janakabhu) of the Palas. In Ramacharitam Dharmapala is hailed as the glory of the 'Samudra' (oceanic) dynasty; it also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala, as a Kshatriya. The 16th-century Tibetan Lama Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India described that Gopala was born of the seed of a certain tree-god from the womb of a Kshatriya woman. Historian Niharranjan Ray mentions that this story is connected with totemic lore, and it is a reflection of the society outside of Puranic Brahmanism. Taranatha too suggested a close connection between Dharmapala and the Samudras (Seas), and in the 17th-century Dharmamangal of Ghanaram there is the suggestion of a relationship between Dharmapala's queen and the Samudras. Niharranjan Ray hence suggested some possible relationship between the Pala kings and the ocean-going men of Gauda.
The Ballala-Carita, written in the 15th century, states that the Palas were low Kshatriyas, as does Ghanaram in his Dharmamangal. The Pala dynasty has also been branded as Shudra in some sources such as the 8th-century Manjushri-Mulakalpa. The 16th-century historian Abul Fazl going by this tradition described these kings as Kayasthass. According to Dr. K. N. Sahay, "Pala was also a Kayastha surname and we can claim Palas also as Kayasthas".
In the 11th-century Sanskrit tale Udayasundari-Katha by Soddhala, Dharmapala is said to be a descendant of the Solar dynasty. In the Kamauli inscription issued by Pala minister Vaidyadeva (later king of Kamarupa) the Pala rulers are likewise referred to as belonging to the Solar dynasty (Mihiravamsa). According to Nitish Sengupta, such claims of belonging to the legendary Solar dynasty seems to be unreliable and appear to be an attempt to cover up the humble origins of the dynasty.
Modern scholars believe Palas were Buddhists as their court became a stronghold and their copper plates emphasised Buddhist affiliation but large majority of images and inscriptions testify that the Palas patronized the brahmans and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu. André Wink mentions that the founder, Gopala was elected, and "definitely not of royal blood but probably of a line of brahmans which transformed itself into kshatriyas". Wink further describes that as per an Arabic source Pāla was 'not a king of noble origin'.
After the fall of Shashanka's kingdom, the Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this situation as matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish).
Gopala ascended the throne as the first Pala king during these times. A eulogy on the Khalimpur copper plate of Gopala names his father as Vapyata, describing him as a Khanditarati or "killer of enemies", and his grandfather Dayitavishnu as Sarva-vidyavadata ("all-knowing" in the sense "highly educated"). As per a contemporary source, Gopala was born in a family of Dasajivinah. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that the prakriti (people) of the region made him the king. Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later, also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on the night following their election. Gopala, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne. The historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region.
Gopala's ascension in 750 CE was a significant political event as several independent chiefs recognized his political authority without any struggle, consolidating his power over the whole of Bengal including Gaur, Varendra and Banga, also extending his rule over parts of Magadha. According to R. C. Majumdar, Gopala ruled till 770 CE.
Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son Dharmapala and his grandson Devapala. Dharmapala was initially defeated by the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja. Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for the Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern India. He defeated Indrayudha of Kannauj, and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty, as far as Jalandhara. Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II, who conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to Munger and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek alliance with the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III, who then intervened by invading northern India and defeating Nagabhata II. The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He adopted the title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja.
Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala Emperor. His expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (present-day Assam) where the king submitted without giving a fight and the Utkala (present-day Northern Odisha) whose king fled from his capital city. The inscriptions of his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are possibly exaggerated (see the Geography section below).
According to Tibetan sources, the emperors; Khri-srong-lda-btsan (Trisong Detsen) and his son, Mu-teg-btsan-po (Ralpacan), conquered India and made Dharmapala submit. Whether this is historically accurate has been debated between historians however it can be asserted that Devapala came into conflict with the Tibetans. Chinese records, indicate Tibetan control over the Himalayas was lost from 839 to 848 CE which was during Devapala's reign. During the period when Dharmapala's reign was coming to a close and Devapala's reign was beginning, the Pratihāra ruler Nagabhatta attacked the Palas allied with the Tibetan Empire. Devapala defeated the Tibetan kings. The Dullu inscription of King Prithvimalla confirms Devapala's conquest with the mention of the establishment of the Pala Dynasty of Nepal with the first ruler being Adipala whose lineage would continue to rule for sixteen generations.
Devapala's oldest son, Rajyapala predeceased him, and as so Mahendrapala, his next older son succeeded him. He possibly maintained his father's vast territories and carried out further campaigns against the Utkalas and the Hunas. He passed his empire intact to his younger brother Shurapala I, who held sway over a considerably large territory encompassing Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, proven by his Mirzapur copperplate. What happened in Gopala II's rule, the son of Surapala I, is still unknown. After Gopala II, Dharmapala's line came to an end for reasons which are not known yet. Dharmapala's descendants, if any, were passed over as Dharmapala's younger brother, Vakapala's lineage assumed the throne.
Shortly afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating. Vakapala's grandson and Jayapala's son, Vigrahapala I abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his 54-year long reign, Mihira Bhoja defeated the Palas. Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles.
Naryanapala's son Rajyapala ruled for at least 32 years, and constructed several public utilities and lofty temples. Earlier it was thought that his son Gopala III lost Bengal after a few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. However, it has been debunked by his Bhagalpur inscription, in which he granted a Brahmin two villages in Pundrabardhanabhukti in Northern Bengal, signalling his control over it. His son and the next king, Vigrahapala II, had to bear the invasions from the Chandelas and the Kalachuris. During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of Harikela (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed the title Maharajadhiraja, and established a separate kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty. The Gauda state (West and North Bengal) was ruled by the Kamboja Pala dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty also bore names ending in the suffix -pala (e.g. Rajyapala, Narayanapala and Nayapala). However, their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view is that they originated from a Pala official who usurped a major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital.
Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 978 CE. He also recovered his capital, Gauda, which had been lost to he Kambojas. He also recovered the northern part of the present-day Burdwan division. During his reign, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023 CE to get Ganges water and in the process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under Mahipala I of the Pala Dynasty. Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king "elephants of rare strength, women and treasure". Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar, probably aided by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which was probably Mahipala's son Nayapala.
Nayapala, the son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar Atiśa. During the reign of Nayapala's son Vigrahapala III, Karna once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a peace treaty, and Vigrahapala III married Karna's daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III was later defeated by the invading Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. Vigrahapala III also faced another invasion led by the Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of invasions considerably reduced the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign.
Text from the Wikipedia article “Pala Empire”, available under CC BY-SA 4.0.