The First Egyptian–Ottoman War or First Syrian War (1831–1833) was a military conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt brought about by Muhammad Ali Pasha's demand to the Sublime Porte for control of Greater Syria, as reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. As a result, Egyptian forces temporarily gained control of Syria, advancing as far north as Kütahya.
Background
Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt is recorded as planning to extend his rule to the Ottoman Empire's Syrian provinces as early as 1812, secretly telling the British consul of his designs on the territory that year. This desire was left on hold, however, as he consolidated his rule over Egypt, modernizing its government administration, public services, and armed forces, and suppressing various rebellions, including Mamluk and Wahhabi uprisings—on behalf of Sultan Mahmud II.
In 1825, the Sultan again called on Muhammad Ali to suppress a local uprising, this time a nationalist revolution by Greek Christians. He was promised rule over Crete and the Morea (the modern Peloponnese) for his services. His son, Ibrahim Pasha, won quick victories at the head of a conscript army and controlled nearly the entire Peloponnesian peninsula within 10 months of his arrival in February 1825. The Greeks continued guerrilla operations however, and by September 1827 public opinion in Russia, Britain, and France forced the great powers to intervene in favour of the Greeks. The joint British–Russian–French fleet destroyed Muhammad Ali's fleet that October at the Battle of Navarino, and Ibrahim’s forces were expelled from the Morea a year later following the arrival of a French expeditionary force and a settlement negotiated by the European powers. Once Ibrahim and his forces returned from Greece, preparations to wrest control of Syria began in earnest.
There was a two-year delay because of the Franco-Egyptian plans for the conquest of North Africa. According to the plan of the French ambassador to Egypt, Bernardino Drovetti, the conquest of Algiers (as well as Tripoli and Tunis) was to be carried out not by King Charles X, but by the French-backed armies of Mehmed Ali. This would help improve relations with Egypt, which had been damaged after the Battle of Navarino, increase France's prestige, and avoid British intervention. Muhammad Ali quickly accepted this, forming a 40,000-man army under Ibrahim for a campaign against Africa, but demanded, in addition to funds, that France provide him with four 80-gun ships. The French refused and offered the assistance of their navy instead. This offer was extremely unpleasant for Muhammad Ali, who wanted to fight in the Maghreb under the flag of Islam. In 1830, France put forward a new plan for a joint campaign. The Egyptians were supposed to capture Tripoli and Tunis, and France, Algeria. But Muhammad Ali rejected this plan as well. Ultimately, he completely refused to participate in the Algerian campaign, which the French undertook independently, while Muhammad Ali devoted himself entirely to events in Syria.
The Porte was unprepared for war with Egypt. It had been seriously weakened by the Greek uprising and the war against Russia. Military reforms, following the dissolution of the Janissary corps, were still far from complete in 1831. Furthermore, the main Ottoman forces were in the Balkans at the time, suppressing Bosniak and Albanian uprisings.
The conquest of Syria
In October 1831, Ibrahim Pasha launched a campaign. The troops with which Ibrahim Pasha, appointed commander-in-chief, undertook the conquest of Syria numbered only thirty to forty thousand men. He also commanded an impressive fleet, consisting of sixteen warships and seventeen transport vessels, carrying his staff officers, as well as forty small cannons and several siege guns. Their campaign was delayed until late autumn due to a cholera outbreak, which claimed the lives of over 5,000 soldiers in just over a month.
Finally, on November 2, 1831, the decisive hour arrived, and two expeditions were ordered to march to Syria, one by land, the other by sea. The army set out overland from Shalkhiya in northern Cairo, through al-Arish, and finally to Jaffa. In Jaffa, they were met by Ibrahim Pasha, who arrived by sea on November 9 and entered the city three days later. After capturing Jaffa, Ibrahim easily entered Haifa on November 17, 1831. Immediately thereafter, Sidon, Tyre, Beirut, Tripoli, Latakia, Jerusalem, and Nablus swore allegiance to Mehmed Ali's son, allowing him to focus his efforts on capturing the strategically important city of Acre. By the end of November, the Egyptian army arrived at Acre.
Soon, at the far end of the harbor where Acre now stands,Ibrahim, emulating General Bonaparte, established his headquarters at Haifa, at the foot of Mount Carmel; there he concentrated his ammunition, reserves, and ships. Five ships of the line, several frigates, and countless light vessels were to surround the city, blockade it, and bombard it; thirty thousand men were to besiege it from this narrow strip of land, so difficult to approach. On November 26, the siege began. Abdullah was only slightly alarmed.
Siege of Acre
At the beginning of the siege, Ibrahim experienced incredible luck. As Charles Napier noted, if a storm had arisen, not a single ship would have been able to return to Alexandria. In accordance with the Egyptian plans Acre was besieged by sea and land. On December 9 an attempt was made to overwhelm the place with a com-bined bombardment from the shipping and the land batteries. But the ships suffered considerable damage and the land batteries made small impression.
On March 7, a second assault on the fortress began. The Egyptians launched several attacks but were repelled with heavy losses. Abdullah Pasha even personally participated in the battle with his best troops. Abdullah may not have been particularly honest or wise, but he was a brave and decisive man, and the siege in its early stages was conducted with great skill. A party of the stormers penetrated to the market place, but finding themselves unsupported had to withdraw. Ultimately, the Egyptian forces retreated, suffering 1,200 casualties. The ships that participated in the battle, seriously damaged, sailed to Alexandria for repair. Ibrahim's position began to appear critical.
At the end of March, Osman Pasha's army, several thousand strong, arrived in Tripoli. However, during his first attempt to take it, he was defeated and forced to retreat. A battalion was sent after him to pursue Osman Pasha. In the ensuing clash, both armies were forced to retreat to their camps.
Ibrahim Pasha, concerned about the situation in Tripoli, delegated command to one of his generals and set out for Tripoli with an army of 8,000 and six cannons. Almost as soon as Ibrahim appeared before the Turks, Osman Pasha fled, joining forces with the Pasha of Aleppo. After arriving in Tripoli, he advanced on Homs. However, facing unexpected resistance from Serasker Mehmed Pasha, he was forced to retreat to Khan-Kassir. There, he encountered the combined forces of three pashas and engaged in battle. After several hours of fighting, Ibrahim was forced to withdraw from the battlefield, suffering heavy losses.
Abdullah Pasha, learning that Ibrahim Pasha's main forces were in the Lebanese mountains at the time, decided to make a sortie. Having lured the Egyptian army under the fortress, the remaining troops in Acre emerged and opened fire on the Egyptians. The besiegers were soon surrounded and routed, in the meantime, Abdallah successfully captured some of the Egyptian artillery. The Egyptian troops retreated, giving Abdullah time to restore the fortress's fortifications.
Following these events, Ibrahim Pasha returned to the siege of Acre, and on May 19, he began a massive shelling on the fortress. By that time, Acre was practically destroyed.
At dawn on May 27 Ibrahim directed the storming party in person. A long struggle ensued. Ibrahim is related to have cut down with his own hand several officers who had fallen into the rear of the storming columns, and after great efforts he had by nightfall succeeded in capturing the place, which was then, in strict accordance with western rules of war, given up to plunder. Abdullah proudly declared: “When Ibrahim took it the walls had been destroyed; of my 6000 men 5600 were dead, and of my treasure nothing remained but a few jewels”. After the siege, of Abdullah Pasha who was sent as a prisoner of war to Egypt. Egyptian losses are estimated at 2,000, although there are reports of losses as high as 4,500.
Syria
The Porte was hesitant in its approach to the Egyptian questions. It dispatched Nazif Efendi to Alexandria to simultaneously ascertain Mehmed Ali's position, ordering him to withdraw his troops from Syria, and ordered Abdullah not to interfere in Egyptian affairs, condemning both sides. However, these measures failed. It then took more active action. It began mobilizing armies in Anatolia and Syria, naming Mehmed Pasha of Aleppo as commander of the Syrian army, and Ağa Hüseyin Pasha as commander-in-chief of the army, totaling approximately 60,000 men. Hussein was also appointed governor of Egypt, and Mehmed Ali himself was declared a rebel.
After the fall of Acre, Ibrahim moved toward Damascus. Ibrahim wrote to Ali Pasha, the governor of Damascus, demanding the surrender of the city, supporting this proposal by sending a siege force of 18,000 men, consisting of 9,000 regular troops and the same number of Bedouins, and 24 cannons. Upon receiving Ibrahim's letter, Ali Pasha convened a council of Damascus's nobles, at which it was decided not to evacuate the city until at least some resistance was offered. However, the city's inhabitants were unable to withstand a siege, let alone provide the soldiers necessary to defend the city. On the evening of June 14, the Egyptian army set up camp near the village of Avadich, two hours' drive south of Damascus.
On the morning of June 15, at 3:00 PM, 800 cavalrymen appeared west of Avadich, and infantry to the east. After the former were driven back by an Egyptian squadron and Bedouins, and the latter by a volley from an infantry battalion, Ali Pasha considered this display of honor to have satisfied his defense and conscience. He retreated, accompanied by all Turkish authorities and guarded by 1,500 cavalry and 500 infantry, uncontested in Homs. After Ali Pasha's departure, the inhabitants opened the gates of Damascus to the Egyptians, surrendering the city.
The then-ongoing Tanzimat reforms of Mahmud II had experienced significant difficulties in adopting the innovative military methods of conscription and mass drill then being implemented in European armies, but Muhammad Ali had managed to adopt both. Ibrahim's overwhelming success cannot be attributed only to modern organization however. His officers had significantly more experience than their Ottoman counterparts, having borne the brunt of fighting in the Empire's two most recent major wars against the Wahhabi and Greek rebellions, and he attracted significant local support to his cause by calling his campaign one for "liberation from the Turkish yoke."