The Xia dynasty (, SHEE-ah; Chinese: 夏朝; pinyin: Xiàcháo; Wade–Giles: Hsia Ch'ao) is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. Some scholars, especially Western historians and Sinologists, consider the Xia dynasty legendary or at least unsubstantiated, while a majority of Chinese archeologists consider it historical and identify it with the archaeological Erlitou culture (c. 1900–1500 BC). According to tradition, it was established by the likely legendary figure Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. In traditional historiography, the Xia dynasty was succeeded by the Shang dynasty.
There are no contemporaneous records of the Xia, and they are not mentioned in the oldest Chinese texts, the earliest oracle bone inscriptions dating from the Late Shang period (13th century BC). The earliest mentions occur in the oldest chapters of the Book of Documents, which report speeches from the early Western Zhou period and are accepted by most scholars as dating from that time. The speeches justify the Zhou conquest of the Shang as the passing of the Mandate of Heaven and liken it to the succession of the Xia by the Shang. That political philosophy was promoted by the Confucian school in the Eastern Zhou period. The succession of dynasties was incorporated into the Bamboo Annals and Shiji and became the official position of imperial historiography and ideology.
According to the traditional chronology, based upon calculations by Liu Xin, the Xia ruled between 2205 and 1766 BC. According to the chronology based on the "current text" Bamboo Annals, it ruled between 1989 and 1558 BC. Comparing the same text with dates of five-planet conjunctions, David Pankenier, supported by David Nivison, proposed dates of 1953 and 1555 BC. The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project, commissioned by the Chinese government in 1996, proposed that the Xia existed between 2070 and 1600 BC.
Traditional historiography
The Xia dynasty was described in several Chinese classics, including the Book of Documents, the Bamboo Annals, and Sima Qian's Shiji. These sources make clear that the Xia was considered a historical dynasty in the first millennium BCE. The Shiji and Book of Rites say that Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia dynasty, was the grandson of Zhuanxu, who was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor. But there are also other records, like Ban Gu's, that say Yu's father was a fifth-generation descendant of Zhuanxu. Other sources, such as Classic of Mountains and Seas mention Yu's father Gun was the son of Luoming, who was the son of the Yellow Emperor. Sima Qian traced the origin of the dynasty to the name of a fief granted to Yu, who would use it as his own surname and his state's name.
According to Sima Qian and other early texts, Gun, the father of Yu the Great, is the earliest recorded member of the Xia clan. He describes how when the Yellow River flooded, many tribes united together to control and stop the flooding and Gun was appointed by Emperor Yao to stop the flooding. He ordered the construction of large levees to block the path of the water. The attempts of Gun to stop the flooding lasted for nine years, but ultimately failed because the floods strengthened. After nine years, Yao had already given his throne to Shun. Shun ordered that Gun be imprisoned for life at Yushan (羽山, 'Feather Mountain'), a mountain located between modern Donghai County in Jiangsu, and Linshu County in Shandong.
According to traditional accounts, Shun trusted Yu and appointed him to stop the flooding, which he did by organizing people from different tribes and ordered them to help him dig channels in all the major rivers and lead the water out to the sea. This was considered to have established the layout of the world's rivers. Legend says that in the 13 years it took him to successfully complete the work to stop the floods, he never went back to his home village to stop and rest, even though he passed by his house three times.
Story of founding
According to traditional texts, Yu's success in stopping the flooding increased agricultural production. The Xia tribe's power increased and Yu became the leader of the surrounding tribes. Soon afterwards Shun sent Yu to lead an army to suppress the Sanmiao tribe, which continuously abused the border tribes. After defeating them, he exiled them south to the Han River area. This victory strengthened the Xia tribe's power even more. As Shun aged, he thought of a successor and relinquished the throne to Yu, whom he deemed worthy. Yu's succession marks the start of the Xia dynasty. As Yu neared death he passed the throne to his son, Qi, instead of passing it to the most capable candidate, thus setting the precedent for dynastic rule or the Hereditary System. The Xia dynasty began a period of family or clan control. It is believed that Zhenxun (modern Gongyi) and Yangcheng (modern Gaocheng) were two of the capitals of the dynasty.
Interregnum
According to Sima Qian, the third Xia king was Tai Kang, described as an avid hunter but ineffective ruler. The Bamboo Annals describe the Xia capital at Zhenxun being attacked by Hou Yi, leader of the Youqiong tribe, while Tai Kang was on a hunt beyond the Luo River. The occupation of Zhenxun marked the beginning of a significant interregnum. In the eighth year of the reign of Tai Kang's nephew Xiang, Hou Yi was killed by his former chief minister Han Zhuo. 20 years later, Han Zhuo's forces killed King Xiang and usurped the throne, but the royal family escaped.
Xiang's son Shao Kang was sheltered by a tribal chief, surviving for years as a fugitive despite the efforts of Han Zhuo to eliminate him and prevent any reemergence of the Xia. Upon reaching adulthood, Shao Kang began organizing with local lords who hated Han Zhuo's rule. Shao Kang emerged victorious in the military confrontation that followed, and Han Zhuo committed suicide. The reign of Shao Kang and his son Zhu is traditionally characterized as one of the most prosperous periods in the Xia's history.
Overthrow
Jie is recorded as the final King of Xia, and as with many last rulers in Chinese historiography, he was said to be immoral, lascivious, and tyrannical. He was overthrown by Tang, who inaugurated the new Shang dynasty. King Tang is said to have given the remnants of the Xia clan a fief comprising the small state of Qi. This practice was referred to as "the two crownings and the three respects".
Traditional structure
Nine Provinces
According to the Book of Documents, Yu the Great divided his state into nine provinces (九州). These are Ji (冀), Yan (兗), Qing (青), Xu (徐), Yang (揚), Jing (荊), Yu (豫), Liang (梁) and Yong (雍). Each province was briefly described by the Book of Documents in terms of their soil quality, their productivity and other geographical characteristics. According to the chapter "Tribute of Yu" in the text, the Nine Provinces respectively correspond to modern regions of China as:
- Ji Province corresponds to modern Hebei, Shanxi and a part of Liaoning;
- Yan Province corresponds to parts of Shandong and Hebei;
- Qing Province corresponds to the part of Shandong to the east of Mount Tai;
- Xu Province corresponds to northern parts of Jiangsu, Anhui, and the southern parts of Shandong;
- Yang Province corresponds to southern Jiangsu, southern Anhui, northern Zhejiang, and northern Jiangxi;
- Jing Province corresponds to parts of Hunan, and northwestern Jiangxi;
- Yu Province corresponds to Henan, northern Hubei, southeastern Shaanxi, and southwestern Shandong;
- Liang Province corresponds to Sichuan, southern Gansu, and Shaanxi;
- Yong Province corresponds to parts of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai.
Capital cities
The Xia dynasty moved the capital many times. According to traditional records, these capitals are as follows:
Fangguo tribes
According to traditional Chinese records, the fangguo tribes were polities outside the Xia clan's direct rule. They were mostly large tribal peoples, but some were massive enough to become small states with more complex social structures, rivaling that of the Xia. Many of the tribes were described as in regular relationships with the Xia court, being either allies or enemies. Eventually, some of the tribal chiefs joined the force of Tang to overthrow Jie's regime.
Geopolitical system
According to the "Tribute of Yu" chapter of the Book of Documents, the scope of direct jurisdiction of the Xia state was limited to a small area controlled by the ruling clan. Beyond the Xia's own tribe, other tribal leaders enjoyed relatively independent management and ruling rights in their own territories; for the Xia Hou, they expressed their mutual relations in the form of submission and tribute. The Book of Documents says that Yu the Great determined the relationships between Xia and Fangguo tribes, dividing them into 5 categories according to the tribes' relative locations from the Xia clan's residence:
He [Yu] conferred lands and surnames. (He said), 'Let me set the example of a reverent attention to my virtue,
and none will act contrary to my conduct, Five hundred li formed the Domain of the Sovereign. From the first
hundred they brought as revenue the whole plant of the grain; from the second, the cars, with a portion of the
stalk; from the third, the straw, but the people had to perform various services; from the fourth, the grain in the
husk; and from the fifth, the grain cleaned.
Five hundred li (beyond) constituted the Domain of the Nobles. The first hundred li was occupied by the cities
and lands of the (sovereign's) high ministers and great officers; the second, by the principalities of the barons; and
the (other) three hundred, by the various other princes.
Five hundred li (still beyond) formed the Peace−securing Domain. In the first three hundred, they cultivated
the lessons of learning and moral duties; in the other two, they showed the energies of war and defence.
Five hundred li (remoter still) formed the Domain of Restraint. The (first) three hundred were occupied by the
tribes of the Yi; the (other) two hundred, by criminals undergoing the lesser banishment.
Five hundred li (the most remote) constituted the Wild Domain. The (first) three hundred were occupied by the tribes of the Man; the (other) two hundred, by criminals undergoing the greater banishment.
Texts like the Book of Documents, the Book of Rites, and the Mencius describe that the Xia had already established a distinguished official system with positions helping the Xia clan in managing the state. There were also laws set forth to maintain social stability within the country.
Economic status
Traditional narratives describe the Xia as enjoying prosperity in agriculture; the Analects describe how Yu the Great devoted himself to irrigation, improving the drainage system for cultivating crops. The texts also say that the people of Xia were gifted in producing alcohol, thanks to the notable legendary figure of Du Kang who is usually identified with Shao Kang (traditionally associated with the invention of alcohol). The population was described as having vegetables and rice as staple crops, with meat usually reserved for sacrifices. Additionally, manufacture of goods and trade with outside tribes flourished. The site at Erlitou contains many metallic fragments, suggesting that the time assigned to the Xia was characterized by bronze metallurgy.
During Yu the Great's controlling of the floods, he renewed the transportation system. Sima Qian wrote in his Records of the Grand Historian that Yu used carriages to travel on land, boats to travel on rivers, sleds to travel on mud, and horses to cross the mountains. He surveyed the lands and opened up routes through geographical locations so that tributes from tribal chiefs to the Xia would be more convenient. He organized people to build roads connecting the Nine Provinces, helping to improve tributary and economic relations between the tribes. Traditional texts record that the transport system of the Xia clan extended at least 500 – 600 li horizontally and 300 – 400 li vertically. The Guoyu also records that the Xia dynasty ordered the roads to be opened up in the 9th month, the bridges to be finished in the 10th month.
Population estimates
Although the existence of the Xia dynasty remains unproven and there are no population records from the Bronze Age, scholars have attempted to estimate its population by projecting backwards from known populations 1500 years later. The Book of the Later Han quotes Huangfu Mi's work Diwang Shiji, which claims that when Yu the Great finished establishing the Nine Provinces, the total population was 13,553,923 individuals; however, this number is highly speculative because Huangfu Mi reached his conclusion by extrapolating from demographic statuses of the Qin, Han, Jin dynasties. Modern Chinese scholars estimated the Xia's population by employing records from ancient texts. Records have it that when Tai Kang established Lun as his capital, the settlement had about 500 soldiers (one lu according to Du Yu). Modifying the figures and adding other types of people, Song Zhenhao postulated that this supposed city had between 1500 and 2500 individuals by the time of Tai Kang, a number he classified as medium. Estimating the number of populous cities, Song finally calculated the result of over 2 million. Wang Yumin, using description of demography during the reign of Emperor Shun who directly preceded the Xia, concluded that the population of the dynasty was around 2.1 million.