The Mutapa Empire – also referred to as Mwenemutapa or Munhumutapa (Shona: Mwene we Mutapa, Portuguese: Monomotapa) – was a Shona empire in the north of the Zimbabwean Plateau.
The Portuguese term Monomotapa is a transliteration of the Shona royal title Mwenemutapa derived from a combination of two words, Mwene meaning "Lord" and Mutapa meaning "conquered land". Over time the monarch's royal title was applied to the kingdom as a whole, and used to denote the kingdom's territory on maps from the period.
Geography
The Mutapa Empire was situated on the northern part of the Zimbabwean Plateau, which borders the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and valleys to the north and south respectively, the Indian Ocean in the east, and the Kalahari Desert to the west. Several rivers traverse the Plateau, including the Save, Pungwe, and Runde. The Plateau largely consists of savanna-woodland with musasa and munondo trees on higher ground, and mufuti and munondo on lower ground. The Plateau is inhabited by elephants, lions, leopards, and deer, among others.
History
Origins and early history
Shona oral tradition attributes Great Zimbabwe's demise to a salt shortage, which may be a figurative way of speaking of land depletion for agriculturalists or of the depletion of critical resources for the community. Shona tradition says that some Karanga from Great Zimbabwe migrated slowly to the northern Zimbabwean Plateau. Accordingly, an elephant hunter in Shangwe named Mutota gained prominence, and took interest in trade along the Zambezi, while also finding salt in Dande. In the early-15th century Angoche traders had opened a new route along the Zambezi via the Tonga and Tavara to reach the goldfields close to Khami (capital of the Kingdom of Butua). Accordingly the Karanga made alliances and intermarried with the Tonga and Tavara, and via influencing succession disputes they increased their power in the region. Mutota is said to have been an hunter-warrior in the militaristic Nzou Samanyanga clan, which he led to conquer Dande. He established the capital of the nascent Mutapa Kingdom at Chitako-Changonya Hill where he built a stone enclosure (zimbabwe), and he distributed land and administrative positions to his allies. Mutota is said to have extended his rule over 'Guruuswa' (a territory to the south) before his death.
Stan Mudenge wrote that Shona traditions are likely telescoped due to them only mentioning around half of the known rulers, and that the events surrounding Mutota and his successors before c. 1490 may have taken place over the course of several generations of rulers. Rulers belonging to different royal houses were sometimes 'forgotten' so as to weaken the houses' claims to succession. Mudenge, David Beach, and Innocent Pikirayi consider the above tradition to be faithful to the true process of state formation, and Beach and Pikirayi date this process to the 14th and 15th centuries. Beach thought that Mutota may have been a symbolic figure, as there is no mention of him as Mutapa's founder in traditions recorded before the 1860s; traditions recorded in the 18th century made no mention of him at all and held "Nemapangere" and "Nemangoro" as the first rulers.
Mutota is said to have been succeeded by one of his sons, either Nemangoro or Matope (also called "Nyanhehwe" or "Nebedza"). Matope is more famous and widely revered, compared to Nemangoro about whom little is said, which Mudenge says indicates that Nemangoro must have ruled before Matope for mention of him to survive in some traditions. Traditions say that Mutota stated that any son wanting to succeed him had to commit incest with their sister Nyamhita, who became known as Nehanda. Tradition continues that Matope established his zimbabwe in Bedza, and embarked on numerous military campaigns, first conquering all Tavara and Tonga from the Musengezi River eastwards to the Ruenya River. During the campaign he allied a member of the local Nguruve clan called Chimupore who was allocated Barue; traditions vary on whether Matope extended his rule to the Indian Ocean at this time or just before his death. After this, Matope encountered strong resistance by a Tavara clan led by Karuva, a rainmaking-priest of the Dzivaguru cult, though was able to subdue them. With this, Matope gained control over trade routes along the Zambezi, providing security at the bazaars near Sena for Muslim Swahili traders from Angoche. Like with Mutota, Beach and Mudenge say that Matope may represent multiple rulers' reigns.
According to tradition, Matope was succeeded by his son Mavhura, about whom little is known. Another of his sons, Nyahuma Mukombero, became king and expanded to conquer Uteve. Uteve was a valuable region because Kilwa and Sofala (rivals of Angoche) traded with the interior via it. Traditions say that the conquest was aided by the governor of Guruuswa (Mutapa's southern province), Changamire I, though they vary on the details. One version says that Mukombero placed his son in charge of the newly-conquered land, while Teve traditions say that Changamire aided Bandahuma, a brother of the Mwenemutapa, to flee his brother and found a new kingdom, becoming the first Sachiteve.
The genealogy of Changamire I has been the subject of speculation by scholars. Some scholars say he was a member of the Torwa dynasty of Butua or a friend of them, while others say he was a son of Matope or that he married one of Matope's daughters. After analysing Valoyi traditions, Mathebula and Mokgoatšana say that Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties, being the son of Matope or having married Matope's daughter (or both were true and he married his sister). According to Diogo de Alcáçova's 1506 account, Changamire was an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty who Mukombero ordered to undertake a poison trial due to rumours of him seeking the kingship. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe's zimbabwe and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, with Chikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape. Around 1494, Chikuyo returned with a large army, and they fought a long and deadly battle ending in Changamire I's death. Chikuyo assumed the kingship and consolidated his rule over the empire, except for Guruuswa which stayed loyal to the successor Changamire II; over the course of the following decades the Mwenemutapa is known to have fought Changamire II (likely aided by Butua) intermittently, until at least 1512.
Meanwhile, Sachiteve Bandahuma of Uteve gradually became independent with the help of Changamire II, and both Bandahuma and Mwenemutapa Chikuyo set their sights on conquering the highlands of Manyika, situated in between Guruuswa and Uteve. A loyal vassal of Mukombero, Barue king Makombe, sent his son Chikanga who occupied Manyika and fended off Bandahuma's son Nyamunda, who turned to conquer Madanda and installed a brother as Sedanda. The following years saw Sofala's trade route re-established, and in 1506 the Portuguese gained control of Sofala. There was relative peace between Mutapa and its enemies, until c. 1515 when Nyamunda began campaigns to expand his territory to control the lucrative trade route from Sofala to gold-producing Manyika. As the Mutapa–Teve war ensued, Chikuyo faced two revolts (one by a general named Sono) and reportedly warred with Butua. In the following decades, the Portuguese supplanted Swahili traders along the Zambezi trade route by replacing the bazaars with the settlements of Quelimane, Sena, and Tete. Little is known about the Mutapa–Teve wars, except that they were reignited during the early 1540s.
Mwenemutapa Chivere Nyasoro (son of Chikuyo) ascended to the kingship c. 1550, and is said to have murdered an older brother to gain the kingship. During his reign, a royal named 'Nyandoro Mukomohasha' is said to have reconquered and ruled the Tonga in between the Ruya and Mazoe rivers and to have been appointed as the supreme commander of Mutapa's armies to guard the Zambezi trade route. Chivere was succeeded by his son Negomo Mupunzagutu around 1560. Negomo was told that a prestigious Portuguese mhondoro/n'anga (medium/diviner) would be sent to his court, and in 1561 Gonçalo da Silveira arrived at Negomo's zimbabwe. Silveira was an ardent anti-Muslim nobleman and member of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), who sought to convert the Mwenemutapa to Christianity so that he would favour Portuguese traders and counter Muslim influence. The young and unmarried Negomo was impressed by Silveira, and after experiencing dreams about the Virgin Mary, he agreed to be baptised. Silveira's asceticism and generosity increased his influence, and he baptised hundreds of high-ranking officials. Religious leaders, traditionalist court officials, and Muslim traders saw Silveira as a threat and collaborated to turn Negomo against him. Historians have traditionally interpreted the conspiracy as having told Negomo that Silveira was a secret ally of Sachiteve Chipute, a Portuguese imperialist, and muroyi (wizard), though Gai Roufe says that Silveira was viewed as embodying the spirit of Karuva/Dzivaguru (a foreign spirit (shavi), which were feared) due to similarities between Silveira's death and a coronation ritual in Mutapa. Silveira was strangled with rope or ribbon and thrown into the Musengezi River. Days later, Portuguese merchants arrived to say that God would punish Negomo and the viceroy would send an army to avenge Silveira; Negomo blamed Muslims and had those involved killed. Famine and disease followed soon after which greatly unsettled Negomo. Nevertheless, Mudenge wrote that Silveira's revolution had been suppressed.
Barreto's invasion, the wars of Gatsi Rusere, and the Portuguese struggle for dominance
Following the death of Silveira, the Portuguese Crown sent Francisco Barreto to lead an army and invade and conquer Mutapa, aiming to gain control of its gold reserves. Meanwhile, the Tonga of the Lower Zambezi had been in rebellion against Mutapa since c. 1550, disrupting trade. The expedition suffered several setbacks en route from Portugal, though had travelled up the Zambezi and reached Sena by 1571. On their request, Mwenemutapa Negomo approved Barreto's plans to defeat the Tonga of Samungazi and journey to the mines of Manyika and Guruuswa. Despite scoring several indecisive victories against the Samungazi Tonga which Negomo's forces later capitalised on, Barreto's forces returned to Sena empty-handed and with low morale. Negomo sent a well-armed embassy to Barreto to regain friendly relations (and possibly inspect his forces). Barreto made several demands, and after they exchanged gifts he returned to Mozambique Island to report to the Portuguese king, though died soon after. His successor, Vasco Homem, abandoned plans of conquering Mutapa, instead aiming to conquer the gold mines of Manyika. Homem's forces marched through Uteve (a rival of Manyika), fighting battles and burning villages as they went, until reaching Manyika's capital. Expecting to find 'El Dorado', they were disappointed to find people had to mine and pan for their gold. Homem signed a treaty with Manyika's ruler granting protection to traders, before quickly retreating after hearing Negomo's large army was on its way. Homem's forces were afterwards defeated and exterminated while trying to conquer silver mines of Chikova (upriver from Sena). Stan Mudenge wrote that the "true victor" from these events was Negomo, having regained control over the Samungazi and had the rivalrous Teve weakened.