The Kerma culture or the Kingdom of Kerma was an early civilization centered in Kerma, Sudan, in ancient Nubia. The culture developed from around 2500 BC, reaching its peak between 1750 BC and 1500 BC. The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia" (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt. The polity seems to have been one of a number of Nile Valley states during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. The Kerma civilization was an ethnic melting pot, with origins tied to a complex web of cultures native to both the Sahara, and, farther south, parts of Central Africa, as well as to peoples originating from the Levant. In the Kingdom of Kerma's latest phase, lasting from about 1700 to 1500 BC, it absorbed the Sudanese kingdom of Sai and became a sizable, populous kingdom rivalling Egypt. Around 1500 BC, it was absorbed into the New Kingdom of Egypt, but rebellions continued for centuries. By the eleventh century BC, the more-Egyptianized Kingdom of Kush emerged, possibly from Kerma, and regained the region's independence from Egypt.
Site and periodisation
The primary site of Kerma that forms the heart of the Kingdom of Kerma includes both an extensive town and a cemetery consisting of large tumuli. The level of affluence at the site demonstrated the power of the Kingdom of Kerma, especially during the Second Intermediate Period when the Kermans threatened the southern borders of Egypt.
The periodisation of Kerma is based on ceramics and other archaeological findings, and roughly matches Egyptian periodisation. The periods are: Early Kerma (2500–2000 BC, contemporary with the late Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period in Egypt), Middle Kerma (2000–1750 BC, contemporary with the Middle Kingdom), Classic Kerma (1750–1500 BC, contemporary with the Second Intermediate Period), and Late or Post-Kerma (after 1500 BC, during the 18th Dynasty).
History
Pre-Kerma culture and Early Kerma
The Kerma culture was preceded by the pre-Kerma culture, which developed between 3500 BC and 2500 BC in Upper Nubia. Evidence suggests that the pre-Kerma culture bore statelets and small kingdoms, fewer in number than the A-Group culture in Lower Nubia, but likely larger polities. Upper Nubia had contact with the Egyptian Old Kingdom (c. 2700–2200 BC) during its control of Lower Nubia, as suggested by epigraphic evidence as well as evidence from Aniba, which also indicate the presence of early Nubian regional rulers. It appears that they were initially loyal to the kings of Egypt.
The earliest settlement in the area of Kerma dates from the pre-Kerma period and was located under the later Kerma period cemetery. The pre-Kerma settlement was composed of wooden structures delineated by postholes, with storage pits, cattle pens, two small rectangular buildings and fifty round huts. The site was surrounded by wooden palisades and earthen ramparts or walls.
Early Kerma
The settlement at Kerma grew from a small, newly-founded fortified village in the Early Kerma period (2500–2000 BC), to a fortified settlement of 3 hectares (ha) (30,000 m2) in the Middle Kerma period (2000–1750 BC).
The Gash Group, a Neolithic culture that flourished from 3000 to 1800 BC in Eritrea and the Eastern Sudan, had contacts with Kerma during the whole period of its development. Kerma elements occurred along the whole stratigraphic sequence at Mahal Teglinos, the main site of the Gash Group. For many centuries, the Gash people were included in the circuit of interchange between Egypt and the southern regions of the Nile valley, so Mahal Teglinos became an important commercial partner of the Kerma state. This trade activity clearly contributed to the rise of complex societies in the region.
By 2300 BC, the Early C-Group culture was also appearing in Lower Nubia, most probably arriving from Dongola Reach (near Kerma). Thus, by the second millennium BC, Kerma was the centre of a large kingdom, probably the first in the Eastern Sudan, that rivalled Egypt. As the Old Kingdom declined and collapsed, Kerma capitalised and expanded north to Aswan.
Middle and Classic Kerma
Kerma grew from a fortified settlement of 3 ha (30,000 m2) in the Middle Kerma period (2000–1750 BC), to a fully urban settlement of about 25 ha (250,000 m2) in the Classic Kerma period (1750–1500 BC).
The Middle Kerma Period coincided with the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the reigns of Egyptian pharaohs Amenemhat I to Sobekhotep IV (c. 1990–1725 BC). During this period Egypt conducted military campaigns into Lower Nubia, possibly to counter Kerman influence. The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaoh Senwosret I established forts at Ikkur, Quban, Aniba, Buhen, and Kor. The fort at Qubban protected gold mining operations along Wadi Allaqi and Wadi Gabgaba. Kerma strongly fortified Saï, which served as the border to Upper Nubia.
The long history of Egyptian military activity in Lower Nubia may indicate that Kerma was perceived as a threat to Pharaonic Egypt at varying times. Principal Egyptian fortifications were built in the middle Nile Valley during the Middle Kingdom. These were to secure the Upper Egyptian border against raids from Kerma, and more than probably and to protect the valuable trade routes between the two regions. Both during the Middle and New Kingdoms, the resources Kerma possessed—gold, cattle, milk products, ebony, incense, ivory, etc.—were much coveted by Egypt. Its army was built around archers.
During the Middle and Classic periods Egyptian influence becomes increasingly visible in the development of linear-walled, fired mudbrick architecture, more elaborate burial practices, and imported prestige goods.
Classic Kerma
Egyptian control weakened during the 13th Dynasty and 2nd Intermediate Period. This became the period of greatest development of Kerma and its greatest extent — its Classic period, dating from c. 1750–1500 BC. During this period the city expanded, becoming a 'fully urban settlement' of about 25 hectares. Massive royal tombs were built in the city's necropolis, and included a large number of human sacrifices, and secondary burials. Two large tumuli included white quartzite cones. A large monumental mudbrick temple known as the "Western Deffufa" was built in the centre of the town. Kushite confrontations also occurred with Egypt in Lower Nubia.
During its zenith, Kerma formed a partnership with the Hyksos and tried to crush Egypt. An inscription in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian governor Sobeknakht II at Nekheb reports that Kerma invaded deep into Egypt between 1575 and 1550 BC. It is believed that this was one of Egypt's most humiliating defeats, which later pharaohs had erased from the official historic records. Many royal statues and monuments were looted from Egypt and removed to Kerma, apparently as a gesture of triumph by Kerma's ruler.
Late Kerma and Egyptian conquest
Under Thutmose I of the New Kingdom, Egypt made several campaigns south, destroying Kerma. This eventually resulted in the Egyptian annexation of Nubia (Kerma/ Kush) c. 1504 BC, and the establishment of a southern frontier at Kanisah Kurgus, south of the Fourth Cataract. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly 'Egyptianized' yet rebellions continued for 220 years (till c. 1300 BC). During the New Kingdom, Kerma/Kush nevertheless became a key province of the Egyptian Empire—economically, politically and spiritually. Indeed, major Pharonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata, which included a large Amun temple.
The New Kingdom of Egypt maintained control of Lower and Middle Nubia, with a Viceroy of Kush, or 'King's Son of Kush'. Egyptian settlements were established on Sai Island, Sedeinga, Soleb, Mirgissa, and Sesibi. Qubban continued to play a strategic role in Eastern Desert gold mining operations.
The extent of cultural/political continuity between the Kingdom of Kerma and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, around 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. Initially, the Kushite kings continued to use Kerma for royal burials and special ceremonies, suggesting some connection. Moreover, the layout of royal funerary compounds in both Kerma and Napata (the Kush capital) are similarly designed. Caches of statues of Kush's pharaohs have also been discovered at Kerma, suggesting that the Napatan rulers recognized a historic link between their capital and Kerma.
Ecopolitical structure
Until recently, the Kerma civilisation was known only from the townsite and cemeteries of its metropolitan centre and smaller sites in Kerma, Sudan. However, recent survey and excavation work has identified many new sites south of Kerma, many located on channels of the Nile, now dry, which lay to the east of the modern course of the river. This pattern of settlement indicates a substantial population and for the first time provides a political context for metropolitan Kerma. Survey work in advance of the Merowe Dam at the Fourth Cataract has confirmed the presence of Kerma sites at least as far upriver as the Abu Hamad/Mograt Island area.
Kerma was evidently a sizable political entity—Egyptian records speak of its rich and populous agricultural regions. Unlike Egypt, Kerma seems to have been highly centralized. It controlled the 1st to 4th Cataracts, which meant its domain was as extensive as ancient Egypt.
Numerous village communities scattered alongside fields of crops made up the bulk of the realm, but there also seems to have been districts where pastoralism (goat, sheep and cattle) and gold processing were important industries. Certain Kerma towns served to centralize agricultural products and direct trade. Analysis of the skulls of thousands of cattle interred in royal Kerma tombs suggest that stock were sometimes brought vast distances, from far districts, presumably as a type of tribute from rural communities on the death of Kerma's monarchs. This parallels the importance of cattle as royal property in other parts of Africa at later times.
Evidence for settled agriculture in the region dates from the pre-Kerma period, c. 3500–2500 BC, whilst copper metallurgy is attested at Kerma from c. 2200–2000 BC.
Only the centres of Kerma (including Doukki Gel) and Sai Island seem to have had contained sizable urban populations. Possibly further excavations will reveal other regional centres. At Kerma and Sai, there is much evidence of wealthy elites, and a class of dignitaries who monitored trade in merchandise arriving from far-off lands, and who supervised shipments dispatched from administrative buildings. Evidently, Kerma played an important intermediary role in the trade of luxury items from the Central African interior to Egypt.
Religious and spiritual tradition
The religious tradition of the Kerma culture was markedly distinct from later Napatan and Meroitic traditions, likely as a result of the Egyptianization that occurred during the New kingdom where polytheism was introduced into Upper Nubia. During the Classical Kerma period animals were represented in their full form, without anthropomorphic characterisations more associated with Egyptian polytheistic tradition, Four animals held supreme importance: rams, lions, winged hippopotami, and winged giraffes . Some scholars believe the Kermans had an animistic view as evidenced by them treating Jebel Barkal as a sacred site, a tradition that would be passed on to New Kingdom Egyptians. Indigenous Upper Nubian deities such as Apedamak evolved out of the Kerma culture where there was reverence for non-anthropomorphic lions and animals during the Classical Kerma period, which were later deified in a polytheistic anthropomorphic fashion during the Meroitic period. Amulets were also common and certain amulets seemed to depict mythical creatures. The likely animistic nature of the Kerma culture shows similarities to other traditional African religions.
Language
The linguistic affiliation of the Kerma culture is currently unknown, and membership to both the Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic language families has been proposed.
According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the Kerma peoples spoke Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic branch. They propose that the Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. They argue that this in turn suggests that the Kerma population—which, along with the C-Group Culture, inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers—spoke Afroasiatic languages.